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BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS TEST -2 SYLLABUS MAX. MARKS-50 Module-1 Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids. Importance of speci...

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS TEST -2 SYLLABUS MAX. MARKS-50 Module-1 Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids. Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes, vitamins and hormones. Module-2 APPLICATION OF BIOMOLECULES Carbohydrates in cellulose-based water filters production, PHA and PLA in bioplastics production, Nucleic acids in vaccines and diagnosis QUESTION PAPER PATTERN SIMILAR TO PREVIOUS PAPER Properties and functions of carbohydrates: Properties: Chemical Composition: Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms is usually 2:1, similar to water (H2O). The basic molecular formula for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. Solubility: Generally soluble in water due to the presence of hydroxyl (- OH) groups, which can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. The solubility varies depending on the size and structure of the carbohydrate molecule. Types of Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates can be classified into several categories based on their chemical structure: Monosaccharides: Single sugar molecules e.g., Glucose, Fructose. Disaccharides: Two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds e.g., Sucrose, Lactose. Oligosaccharides: Short chains of monosaccharide units e.g., Maltose. Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharide units e.g., Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen. Functional Groups: Carbohydrates contain functional groups such as Hydroxyl (-OH) groups, Carbonyl (C=O) groups, and Aldehyde (-CHO) or ketone (>C=O) groups, Functions: 1. Energy Source: Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for living organisms. Monosaccharides (glucose) are readily metabolized by cells to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell. 2. Energy Storage: Excess glucose in the body is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles for later use. Plants store energy in the form of starch.. Structural Support: Carbohydrates play a crucial role in providing structural support to cells and organisms. Cellulose, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of plants, provides rigidity and strength to plant cells. 4. Cellular Communication: Carbohydrates are involved in cell-cell recognition and signaling processes. Cell surface carbohydrates, such as glycoproteins and glycolipids, participate in cell adhesion, immune responses, and hormone signaling. 5. Dietary Fiber: Some carbohydrates, particularly polysaccharides like cellulose and hemicellulose, are dietary fibers that aid in digestion, regulate bowel movements, and promote overall gastrointestinal health. 6. Flavor and Sweetness: Certain carbohydrates, especially monosaccharides (glucose) and disaccharides (sucrose), contribute to the flavor and sweetness of foods. They are commonly used as sweeteners in food and beverage industries.  Properties and Function of Nucleic acids  Nucleic acids are essential macromolecules found in all living organisms, responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information. They are composed of nucleotides, which are made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), and a phosphate group. The two primary types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA:  Typically exists as a double helix, formed by two polynucleotide strands coiled around each other.  The nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine) form complementary base pairs (A-T and G-C), stabilizing the structure. RNA:  Generally exists as a single-stranded molecule.  RNA contains uracil instead of thymine and can be found in various forms, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). 1.Storage of Genetic Information: DNA: Acts as the primary repository of genetic information in most organisms. The sequence of nucleotide bases along the DNA strand encodes the instructions for building and maintaining an organism. RNA: Plays a crucial role in transmitting genetic information from DNA to the protein synthesis machinery of the cell. mRNA carries the genetic code from the DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized based on this information. 2. Gene Expression: DNA:  Gene expression involves the process of transcribing DNA into mRNA (transcription) and translating mRNA into proteins (translation).  It's a highly regulated process that controls which genes are expressed in a cell at a given time. RNA: Various types of RNA, such as mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, participate in different stages of gene expression. For example, tRNA molecules transport amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis, while rRNA molecules are integral components of the ribosome itself 1.Biological Functions: DNA: Storing genetic information, DNA replication, where the genetic material is copied during cell division, and DNA repair, which maintains the integrity of the genome by correcting errors and damage. RNA: RNA molecules have role in protein synthesis. For example, microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) regulate gene expression by targeting specific mRNAs for degradation or inhibiting their translation Variability: DNA: The overall structure of DNA is relatively stable, variations in the sequence of nucleotide bases can lead to genetic diversity within populations, driving evolution and adaptation. RNA: RNA molecules can exhibit more variability in structure and function compared to DNA. This variability allows RNA to perform a wide range of roles Proteins Proteins are fundamental macromolecules composed of amino acids. They are indispensable for the proper functioning of biological systems. Proteins exhibit remarkable diversity in structure and function. Properties of Proteins Primary Structure Sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Determines the unique identity of each protein. Secondary Structure Regular patterns of folding (e.g., alpha helices, beta sheets). Result from hydrogen bonding between amino acids. Tertiary Structure Three-dimensional folding of the polypeptide chain. Influenced by various interactions (hydrophobic, hydrogen bonds, disulphide bonds).  Quaternary Structure Arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits. Forms functional protein complexes. Functions of Proteins Structural Function Provide support and shape to cells and tissues. Examples: collagen, actin, keratin. Enzymatic Function Act as catalysts for biochemical reactions. Crucial for metabolism, DNA replication, etc. Transport Function Facilitate the movement of molecules across membranes and within the body. Examples: haemoglobin, membrane transport proteins.  Hormonal Function Regulate physiological processes via chemical signalling. Examples: insulin, growth hormone. Defense Function Protect against pathogens and foreign invaders. Antibodies play a key role in the immune system. Contractile Function Enable movement and muscle contraction. Actin and myosin are primary contractile proteins. Storage Function Store nutrients, ions, and other essential molecules.  Regulatory Function Control gene expression and cellular processes. Transcription factors, signalling proteins. Sensory Function Transmit signals in response to stimuli. Examples: receptors for light, taste, smell, touch. Structural Diversity Variation in amino acid sequence and post-translational modifications. Allows proteins to perform diverse functions. Lipids are a diverse group of molecules that play essential roles in the human body and in living organisms in general. Properties: Hydrophobic Nature: Lipids are typically nonpolar molecules, meaning they are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents like benzene, chloroform, or ether. Structural Diversity: Lipids encompass a wide range of molecules, including fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes. Energy Storage: Lipids serve as an efficient long-term energy storage form in the body. They contain more than twice the energy per gram as carbohydrates or proteins, making them valuable energy reserves. Insulation and Protection: Fats, particularly adipose tissue, serve as insulation beneath the skin, helping to maintain body temperature. They cushion and protect organs from physical damage. Cellular Structure: Phospholipids are crucial components of cell membranes. Their amphipathic nature (hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions) allows them to form the lipid bilayer, providing structural integrity and regulating the passage of molecules in and Functions: Energy Storage: Lipids are the most efficient energy storage molecules in the body. Adipose tissue stores excess energy in the form of triglycerides, which can be broken down and metabolized to produce ATP, the body's primary energy currency. Cell Membrane Structure: Phospholipids and cholesterol are key components of cell membranes. They form a lipid bilayer that acts as a barrier, controlling the passage of substances into and out of the cell and maintaining cellular integrity. Hormone Production: Steroid hormones, derived from cholesterol, regulate various physiological processes such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction. Ex: cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone. Thermal Insulation: Adipose tissue, composed primarily of lipids, acts as an insulating layer beneath the skin, helping to maintain body temperature by reducing heat loss. Protection of Organs: Lipids, particularly adipose tissue, serve as a protective cushion around vital organs such as the kidneys and heart, shielding them from mechanical damage. Nerve Function: Lipids, particularly sphingolipids and cholesterol, are crucial for the formation and maintenance of myelin sheaths around nerve cells. These sheaths facilitate the rapid transmission of nerve impulses. Vitamin Absorption: Lipids aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) in the digestive tract. These vitamins require dietary fats for proper absorption and transportation within the body.  Properties and Functions of enzymes:  Enzymes are biological molecules, typically proteins, that act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions in living organisms. They play crucial roles in various metabolic pathways, allowing organisms to carry out essential processes efficiently. Properties and Functions of enzymes: Catalytic Activity: Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur. This acceleration enables biological processes to proceed at rates fast enough to sustain life. Specificity: Enzymes exhibit high specificity towards their substrates, meaning each enzyme typically catalyzes only one type of reaction or a group of similar reactions. This specificity arises from the precise arrangement of amino acids in the enzyme's active site, which complements the structure of the substrate. Substrate Binding: Enzymes bind to their substrates at specific regions called active sites. The interaction between the enzyme and its substrate is highly selective and typically involves non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, and van der Waals forces. Induced Fit: Upon substrate binding, enzymes often undergo conformational changes that optimize the fit between the enzyme and the substrate. This induced fit mechanism enhances the enzyme-substrate interaction and promotes catalysis. Enzyme Inhibition: Competitive inhibitors, which compete with the substrate for binding to the active site, and Non-competitive inhibitors, which bind to the enzyme at a location other than the active site and alter its conformation. Enzyme Kinetics: The rate of enzymatic reactions can be described by enzyme kinetics, which includes parameters such as the Michaelis- Menten constant (Km), maximum reaction rate (Vmax), and turnover number (kcat). Biotechnological Applications: Enzymes are widely used in biotechnology and industry for various purposes, including food processing, pharmaceutical production, and environmental remediation. Enzyme engineering techniques are employed to modify enzyme properties for specific applications, such as increased stability or altered substrate specificity.  Properties and functions of Vitamins Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for various physiological functions in the body. They are micronutrients, meaning they are required in relatively small amounts Vitamins play crucial roles in metabolism, growth, development, and overall health. Properties and functions of vitamins: Essentiality: Vitamins are essential nutrients that cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by the body and must be obtained through diet or supplementation. Exceptions include vitamin D, which can be synthesized in the skin through exposure to sunlight, and vitamin K, which can be synthesized by intestinal bacteria. Classification: Vitamins are classified into two groups based on their solubility: Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and Water-soluble vitamins (B-complex and vitamin C). Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with fats in the diet and are stored in the body's fat tissues, Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed directly into the bloodstream and are not stored to a significant extent, Coenzyme Function: Many vitamins serve as precursors or components of coenzymes, which are molecules that assist enzymes in catalyzing metabolic reactions. Ex: B-complex vitamins (e.g., thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid) are essential for the synthesis of coenzymes involved in energy metabolism. Vitamin K is necessary for the synthesis of coenzymes involved in blood clotting. Antioxidant Activity: Vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene (a precursor of vitamin A), act as antioxidants, scavenging free radicals and reactive oxygen species that can damage cells and contribute to aging and disease. These vitamins help protect cells from oxidative stress and maintain overall health. Bone Health: Vitamin D plays a crucial role in calcium absorption and bone metabolism, promoting the mineralization of bones and teeth. Deficiency in vitamin D can lead to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, (weakened and softened bones). Vision and Immune Function: Vitamin A is essential for vision, particularly in low-light conditions, and also plays a role in immune function, cell differentiation, and skin health. Deficiency in vitamin A can lead to vision problems, impaired immune function, and skin disorders. Blood Clotting: Vitamin K is necessary for the synthesis of proteins involved in blood clotting and bone metabolism. Without adequate vitamin K, the blood's ability to clot properly is impaired, leading to excessive bleeding and bruising. Neurological Function: B-complex vitamins (e.g., folate, vitamin B12) and vitamin E, are essential for neurological function and development. Deficiency in these vitamins can lead to neurological disorders, cognitive impairment, and developmental abnormalities. Pregnancy and Fetal Development: Adequate intake of certain vitamins, such as folic acid, is crucial during pregnancy for proper fetal development and the prevention of neural tube defects in the developing fetus. Disease Prevention: Vitamins play roles in preventing various diseases - cardiovascular disease, cancer, and age-related, macular degeneration. Excessive intake of certain vitamins, particularly fat-soluble Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands or specific cells in various organs and tissues throughout the body. They play critical roles in regulating physiological processes, maintaining homeostasis, and coordinating responses. Properties and functions of hormones: Chemical Nature: Hormones can be classified based on their chemical structure into three main groups: Peptide hormones (e.g., Insulin, growth hormone), Steroid hormones (e.g., Estrogen, Testosterone), and Amino acid-derived hormones (e.g., Thyroid hormones, Adrenaline). Regulation of Physiological Processes: Hormones regulate a wide range of physiological processes, including metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, stress response, immune function, and electrolyte balance. Endocrine Glands: Hormones are synthesized and secreted by specialized glands called endocrine glands, including the Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland, Adrenal glands, Pancreas, Ovaries, and Testes. Some hormones are also produced by non-endocrine tissues, such as the kidneys, liver, and heart. Transport in the Blood stream: Hormones are transported through the bloodstream to target tissues, where they exert their effects. Peptide hormones and catecholamine's, circulate freely in the blood, while others, such as steroid hormones and thyroid hormones, bind to carrier proteins for transport. Hormone-Receptor Interaction: Hormones exert their effects by binding to specific receptors on target cells, initiating signaling cascades that lead to cellular responses. The binding of a hormone to its receptor triggers various intracellular events, including changes in gene expression, enzyme activity, ion transport, and protein synthesis. Duration of Action: Hormones can have short-term or long-term effects on target tissues, depending on factors such as the hormone's half-life, receptor affinity, and downstream signaling pathways. Some hormones, like adrenaline, elicit rapid responses, while others, such as thyroid hormones, have slower, more sustained effects. Development and Reproduction: Hormones play crucial roles in growth, development, and reproduction. Ex: Growth hormone regulates growth and development during childhood and adolescence, Sex hormones like estrogen and testosterone control reproductive functions and secondary sexual characteristics. Stress Response: Hormones are involved in the body's response to stress, helping to mobilize energy reserves, increase heart rate and blood pressure, and suppress non-essential functions during fight-or-flight reactions. Hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline play key roles in the stress response. Disease and Dysfunction: Imbalances in hormone levels can lead to various health problems and diseases. Hormone deficiencies or excesses can result in conditions such as diabetes, thyroid disorders, adrenal insufficiency, reproductive disorders, and metabolic syndrome. Cellulose-Based Water Filters The filters made from cellulose, a carbohydrate polymer found in plant cell walls. They are used to remove impurities, contaminants & pathogens, from water and are an alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters. The high mechanical strength and hydrophilic properties of cellulose make it an ideal material for water filtration. They are widely used in both developed and developing countries for household, industrial, and agricultural applications. They are also an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional filters, as they are biodegradable and can be produced from renewable resources Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and polylactic acid (PLA) Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and polylactic acid (PLA) are two prominent types of bioplastics, each with distinct properties and applications and their roles in bioplastics production: Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) Biosynthesis: PHAs are produced by various microorganisms (Cupriavidus necator) as intracellular carbon and energy storage compounds under nutrient-limited conditions with an excess of carbon sources. Raw Materials: The substrates for PHA production can include sugars, lipids, and fatty acids, often derived from renewable resources like plant oils, agricultural residues, and even waste materials. Properties: Biodegradability: PHAs are fully biodegradable in various environments, including soil, water, and marine settings. Thermal and Mechanical Properties: They have a wide range of thermal and mechanical properties, making them suitable for different applications. Some PHAs are flexible, while others are rigid. Biocompatibility: PHAs are biocompatible, making them suitable for medical applications such as sutures, implants, and drug delivery systems. Applications: Packaging: Due to their biodegradability and compostability, PHAs are used in food packaging, agricultural films, and disposable items like cutlery and plates. Medical Devices: Their biocompatibility and resorbability make them ideal for medical applications. Agriculture: Used in mulch films, fertilizer coatings, and other agricultural products. Polylactic Acid (PLA) Production: Fermentation: PLA is produced through the fermentation of carbohydrates (corn starch, sugarcane, or sugar beet pulp) into lactic acid, which is then polymerized to form PLA. Chemical Synthesis: The polymerization process can involve either direct condensation or ring-opening polymerization of lactide, a cyclic dimer of lactic acid. Properties: Biodegradability: PLA is biodegradable under industrial composting conditions but is less biodegradable in natural environments compared to PHAs. Mechanical Properties: PLA has properties similar to conventional thermoplastics like good clarity, high strength, and rigidity. Thermal Properties: PLA has a relatively low glass transition temperature (about 60°C), which limits its use in high-temperature applications. Applications: Packaging: Widely used in food packaging, plastic films, and bottles due to its clarity and strength. 3D Printing: Popular in 3D printing for making prototypes, models, Medical: Used for sutures, stents, and drug delivery systems because of its biocompatibility and resorb ability. Textiles: Used in fibers for clothing, and other textile applications. Comparison and Synergy Environmental Impact: Both PHA and PLA offer reduced environmental impact compared to traditional petrochemical-based plastics. However, PHAs are more biodegradable in various environments, while PLA requires specific industrial composting conditions. Cost and Production Efficiency: PLA production is currently more cost-effective and scalable compared to PHA, partly due to more established industrial processes and economies of scale. Mechanical and Thermal Properties: PLA generally offers better mechanical properties for rigid applications, whereas PHAs can provide more flexibility and diversity in thermal properties. Future Trends Blends and Composites: Combining PHA and PLA with other materials to enhance their properties and broaden their application range. Sustainable Feedstock's: Increasing the use of waste and non-food biomass as raw materials to improve the sustainability of PHA and PLA production. Technological Advancements: Innovations in microbial engineering, fermentation processes, and polymerization techniques to reduce costs and improve the efficiency of bioplastic production.  Nucleic acids play a crucial role in modern vaccines and diagnostic methods. The use of DNA and RNA has revolutionized these fields, providing new tools for prevention and detection of diseases. Nucleic Acids in Vaccines 1. mRNA Vaccines: mRNA vaccines use messenger RNA to instruct cells to produce a protein that triggers an immune response.  Ex: The COVID-19 vaccines developed by Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna are based on mRNA technology. These vaccines encode the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, prompting the body to produce antibodies against the virus. 2. DNA Vaccines: DNA vaccines deliver a piece of genetic material (DNA) into cells, instructing them to produce an antigen. The immune system recognizes this antigen and mounts a defense. Applications: DNA vaccines are being developed for various diseases, including some cancers and infectious diseases like Zika and Ebola. 3. Advantages: Rapid Development: Nucleic acid vaccines can be designed and produced quickly once the genetic sequence of the pathogen is known. Flexibility: They can be easily modified to address new variants of pathogens. Strong Immune Response: They often induce both humoral and cellular immunity. Nucleic Acids in Diagnostics 1.PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): PCR amplifies specific DNA sequences, allowing for the detection of small amounts of genetic material from pathogens. Applications: Widely used for diagnosing infectious diseases (e.g., COVID- 19, HIV, tuberculosis) and genetic disorders. 2. Real-Time PCR (qPCR): qPCR allows for the quantitative measurement of DNA or RNA in real-time, providing both detection and quantification of the pathogen's genetic material. Applications: Used extensively in clinical diagnostics, including for viral load testing and detecting gene mutations. 3. Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS): NGS technologies sequence entire genomes or specific regions of interest, providing detailed genetic information. Applications: Used for pathogen identification, genetic testing, and surveillance of disease outbreaks. 4. CRISPR-based Diagnostics: Utilizes CRISPR-Cas systems to detect specific genetic sequences with high accuracy. Applications: Emerging as a rapid and precise diagnostic tool for infectious diseases and genetic conditions. 5. Microarrays: Microarrays can analyze the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously by hybridizing nucleic acids to a grid of DNA probes. Applications: Gene expression profiling, Detecting genetic mutations, and Pathogen identification. Integration in Healthcare Point-of-Care Testing: Nucleic acid-based diagnostics are being developed for use at the point of care, enabling rapid and accurate testing in various settings, including remote or resource-limited areas. Personalized Medicine: Genetic information obtained from nucleic acid diagnostics can guide personalized treatment plans, improving outcomes for patients with specific genetic profiles.