CRWT Finals PDF

Week 13: The Nature of Critical Thinking Moreover, since our ability to think critically varies according to our mindset at present, we can learn to improve this ability Critical thinking is defined as the p...

Week 13: The Nature of Critical Thinking Moreover, since our ability to think critically varies according to our mindset at present, we can learn to improve this ability Critical thinking is defined as the progressive ability to by developing certain routine activities and applying them to rationalize matters and think vividly by connecting logical all problems. Practice it whenever possible. reasoning behind ideas. Historically, the very essence of critical thinking has been a favorite topic by ancient Greek Once you understand the theory of critical thinking, philosophers, usually debated upon by great minds like Plato improving this ability becomes more natural and less and Socrates. Today, it is commonly described as one‟s challenging. capacity to think independently and reflect on his or her thoughts objectively, with or without the opinions of other Ascertaining Your Goals people. One of the most important aspects of critical thinking is to Essentially, thinking critically and logical reasoning go hand decide what you are aiming to achieve and then make a and hand all the time. Hence, one needs to be an active decision based on a range of possibilities. learner who seeks facts and investigates with all means possible rather than to be a passive learner who only waits Once you have clarified that aim for yourself, you should use for information to present itself as the situation permits it. it as the starting point in all future situations requiring thought and further decision making. As much as possible, Despite criticisms, a critical thinker assumes that a presented everyone around you should be aware of this goal so they can information is just an assumption, an opinion or a guess assist you whenever there is opportunity to do so. unless proven with proper research or apparent evidences. Nevertheless, the discipline to successfully adopt the attitude He or she rejects all information that does not come with any and mindset of a critical thinker should always start with valid backup information and accepts everything that follows yourself. logical reasoning and comes with evidences. For that person, those that are considered as general facts are still open to There are things that get in the way of every simple decision argument as new data arise from time to time. making. We all carry with us a range of likes and dislikes, personal preferences and learned behaviors developed Critical thinkers will identify, analyze and solve problems throughout our lives; they are the hallmarks of being human. systematically rather than by intuition or instinct. A major contribution to ensuring that we apply critical Furthermore, information are accepted based on quality and thinking is to be aware of these personal characteristics, not on the quantity of proponents. After all, discoveries and preferences and biases, and make allowance for them when inventions never come up through a popular vote; they are considering the next possible steps, whether they are at the achieved after painstakingly studying a subject matter over pre-action consideration stage or as part of a rethink caused and over again. by unexpected or unforeseen impediments to continued progress. A critical thinker habitually displays the following characteristics: The more we understand ourselves, the faster we can Determines the relevance and importance of develop critical thinking. arguments, questions and ideas Understands the connections between ideas The Benefit of Foresight Identifies inconsistent reasoning and consistent errors Critical thinking can never be completed without a keen Recognizes, appraises and builds arguments foresight. Foresight is defined as the ability to predict future actions, which enables a person to proactively create Reflects on the justification of their own assumptions, solutions to impending problems. Essentially, applying beliefs and values foresight to critical thinking allows a person to remain three Approaches problem solving in a systematic steps ahead in any situation, giving him or her certain level of way, favoring objectivity over subjectivity control. From the aforementioned discussion, we can surmise that Foresight is not just any random guessing game. It requires critical thinking means to constantly try to solve problems inference using existing information gathered through and seek solutions. The key here is consistency and systematic research, keen observation and careful analysis. In adherence to the mindset of a true critical thinker. a way, we can say that this is the ability to make tentative conclusions and plan logical arguments ahead of time. This is The Critical Thinking Process described as the most important element of critical thinking, more often than not. No matter how ideal critical thinking as the new norm may be, the fact of the matter is that we cannot apply critical The elements needing consideration are generally numerous thinking at all times. We put are mental guards down. We and varied. In many cases, consideration of one element from prefer practicality over technicality sometimes. We feel a different perspective will reveal potential dangers in complacent and too comfortable depending on the people pursuing our decision. we talk with. Our emotions also get in the way, making physical and mental controls challenging. Remember how For instance, moving a business activity to a new location they say “Don’t make any decisions when you are angry and may improve potential output considerably but it may also do not make promises when you are happy”? Apparently, lead to the loss of skilled workers if the distance moved is too that is true. great. Which of these is the more important consideration? Is there some way of lessening the conflict? It is natural to put our mental state at rest from time to time. Not all situations and problems require critical thinking. Even This scenario shows problems that have yet to arise. Thus, common sense suffices sometimes. What’s important is for one needs to set his or her eyes to the future to as if multiple you to have the ability to identify the situations that need possible outcomes have already unfolded. critical thinking and to be able to activate your critical thinking skills when they are needed the most. These are the sort of problems that may arise from incomplete critical thinking, a demonstration perhaps of the critical importance of good critical thinking.  4. Introspection In Summary: Introspection is the state of being aware of your own manner Critical thinking aims to come up with the most of thinking and train of thoughts. It means knowing when to favorable results in any situation. This is only possible shift thoughts or to stop altogether. after collecting and evaluation information culled from as many reliable sources as possible. Introspection allows you to stay alert and attentive at all times. It is also a good quality to have when self-reflecting on Critical thinking entails an objective self-evaluation of your decisions and actions. strengths, weaknesses, preferences and expected outcomes, no matter how uncomfortable it may feel at first. 5. Analytical thinking Critical thinking requires the development and use of Critical thinkers are innate analytical thinkers, and analytical foresight. thinkers are on their way to becoming critical thinkers.. The Decisions made with critical thinking require ability to analyze information is key when looking at anything, assessment of projected outcomes after application. whether it is a piece of business document, statistical data or This allows proactive solutions as soon as negative a pressing situation. outcomes are projected. To analyze information, you need to break information down to its component parts and evaluate how well those parts Critical thinking does not stop at the application of function together and separately. Analysis relies on decisions and their evaluation. Changes are also observation—on gathering and evaluating evidence so you implemented if there is still room for improvement. For can come to a meaningful conclusion. a critical thinker, no solution is permanent as problems constantly change. 6. Identifying biases Week 14: Characteristics of Critical Thinker Critical thinkers challenge their own beliefs by verifying the sources of their information and looking for alternative Critical thinking is more than just the accumulation of facts sources. Doing this helps you understand your own biases and knowledge; it’s a way of approaching whatever is and question your preconceived notions. presently occupying your mind so that you can come up with the best possible conclusion. 7. Determining relevance If you are hoping to reach your full potential and make your When gathering information, you should not be distracted by mark on the world, cultivate the following 16 characteristics the reputation of the source, the complexity of the data and of critical thinkers. the popularity of the information. Only look at its relevance to the topic and the arguments that you are planning to raise. 1. Observation Observation is considered as one of the first innate critical thinking skills that people learn as a child. You observe when 8. Inference you perceive your environment to be more aware of the Information does not always come with a summary that spells world around us. As you observe, you also take mental notes out exactly what it means. Critical thinkers need to assess the of relevant details, which you can use to develop deeper information and draw conclusions based on raw data. insight and a more profound understanding of the world. Inference is the ability to extrapolate meaning from data and discover potential outcomes when assessing a scenario. 2. Curiosity Curiosity is a core trait of many successful leaders. It is It is also important to understand the difference between prerequisite to learning. Without it, there would be fewer inference and assumptions. For example, if you see data that discoveries and fewer inventions. Furthermore, there would someone weighs 100 kilograms, you might assume they are be less radical principles as people would have been afraid to overweight or unhealthy. However, other data points like challenge the status quo, resulting to dormancy in our height and body composition may alter that conclusion since society. the normality of weight depends on the combination of weight and height, also known as the body-mass index (BMI). Being inherently inquisitive and interested in the world and people around you is a hallmark of leaders who are critical thinkers. Rather than taking everything at face value, a 9. Compassion and empathy curious person will wonder why something is the way it is, At first, having compassion and empathy may seem like a and will not be afraid to impose changes as deemed negative quality for critical thinkers. After all, being necessary. sentimental and emotional can skew our perception of a situation. However, the point of having compassion is to have Curiosity forces you to keep an open mind and propels you to concern for others and to value the welfare of other people. gain deeper knowledge -- all of which are also fundamental to being a lifelong learner. 10. Humility Humility is the willingness to acknowledge one’s 3. Objectivity shortcomings and see one’s positive attributes in an accurate A critical thinker remains objective despite the situation being way. It makes us aware of our own assets and flaws, which affective and personal. That person is able to distinguish facts shows how open minded you are and willing to learn. from opinions, logic from emotions and reality from wishful thinking. Moreover, judgment is not dictated by other When you have intellectual humility, you are open to other compelling people. people’s viewpoints. This is without saying that you accept all viewpoints presented in front of you. You only acknowledge Nevertheless, being objective does not mean losing all your their existence, but not their validity. personal beliefs, biases and preferences. It only means being aware of your own weaknesses, and knowing how to You are also able to recognize when you are wrong, and you separate subjectivity from objectivity. It is also the first step are willing to challenge your own beliefs when beneficial. to becoming an analytical thinker. 11. Willing to challenge the status quo Attentive listening, in as far as communications is concerned, Critical thinking means questioning long-established beliefs is great, but being a passive listener may not always be the best and practices, and refusing to adhere to traditional methods. option. Hence, one has to practice active listening and make Critical thinkers are looking for smart, thoughtful answers and his or her presence feel in the group. This is known as the methods that take into account all the current and relevant precursor to assertiveness as one has to participate in the information and practices available. Their willingness to discussion first before asserting opinions. challenge the status quo may seem controversial, but it is an essential part of the innovative and creative mind of a critical Week 15: The Challenges and Barriers to Critical Thinking in thinker. the 21st Century By challenging the status quo, you acknowledge that The ability to think critically is one skill separating innovators everything can change and has to be changed when deemed and leaders from followers. It combats the power of necessary. advertisers and capitalistic media, unmasks the unscrupulous and pretentious, and exposes unsupported arguments. 12. Open-mindedness Students enjoy learning the skill because they immediately Critical thinkers avoid launching into a frenzied argument or see how it gives them more control. They argue better in taking sides—they want to hear all perspectives. Critical school. They persuade people around them much easier. thinkers do not jump to conclusions right away. They They build confidence to influence others. approach a question or situation with an open mind and embrace other opinions and views. Critical thinking is simple. It is merely the ability to understand why things are the way they are and to 13. Awareness of common thinking errors understand the potential consequences of actions. Critical thinkers do not allow their logic and reasoning to become clouded by illusions and misconceptions. They are A World of Illusions aware of the common logical fallacies, which are errors in reasoning that often creep into arguments and debates. In particular, people adopt false ideas for several reasons: Some common errors in thinking include: People believe stories because they are the ones Circular reasoning, in which the premise of an available (due to lack of other source) argument or a conclusion is used as support for the Beliefs may justify past actions (to pacify guilt and argument itself. protect pride) Cognitive shortcut bias, in which you stubbornly People may not recognize the significance of their stick to a favored view or argument when other own perceptions (due to low self-esteem and poor more effective possibilities or explanations exist. sense of self-worth) Confusing correlation with causation. In other People may not want to question their beliefs (to words, asserting that when two things happen avoid disappointing or painful reality) together, one causes the other. Without direct evidence, this assumption isn’t justified. These reasons, on their own, can already be considered as challenges that hinder people from critically thinking in the modern times. Hence, you must learn to identify the common 14. Effective communication barriers to critical thinking in the 21st century, avoid them, It is hard to strictly define effective communication as a adapt to them or accept them as they are if no choice is person’s effectiveness varies depending on the situation and available. the people involved. In general, though, a person is said to be an effective communication when the 7Cs of effective Barriers in the 21st Century communications are observed both in oral and written forms: clarity, clarity, conciseness, concreteness, correctness, Aside from the emergence of fake news, which is considered coherence, completeness and courtesy. as the biggest challenge after the advent of the internet and social media in particular, people in this generation are facing 15. Creative thinking other barriers that affect the critical thinking process. Effective critical thinkers are also largely creative thinkers. Creative thinkers reject standardized formats for problem 1. Egocentric Thinking solving. They think outside the box and dare to defy standards when deemed more beneficial. They have a wide range of Egocentric thinking is a natural tendency to view everything interests and adopt multiple perspectives on a problem. They in relation to oneself, sometimes to a point of having are also open to experimenting with different methods and narcissistic or messianic mindsets. This type of thinking leads considering different viewpoints. to the inability to sympathize with others or analyze and evaluate various perspectives. Sadly, since most egocentric The biggest difference between critical thinkers and creative people are not willing or cannot see this character flaw within thinkers is that creativity is associated with generating ideas, them, this increases the difficulty in overcoming the barrier. while critical thinking is associated with analyzing and appraising those ideas. Creativity is important to bringing in As students explore themselves and their rightful places novel ideas; critical thinking can bring those ideas into clearer where they can fill accepted and appreciated, egocentric focus. thinking may become more apparent. After all, they need experiences, opportunities for debate, brainstorming Incidentally, creativity is also considered as the extension of sessions, and the chance to ask meaningful questions in order the 7Cs of effective communication, sometimes calling it the to recognize and understand the viewpoints of others. 9Cs of effective communication with the inclusion of Problem arises when initial victory or compliment gets into “creativity” together with “credibility.” their head, making them think that one opportune moment of success in the past can define all of their future actions and decisions. 16. Active listening Attentive listening is often classified into two: active listening and passive listening. Both involve intent listening, which is good as it shows genuine interest, but between the two, only active listening shows adequate feedback.  2. Groupthink 6. Time Pressure Groupthink is described as a mental phenomenon where It is especially important that teachers do their best to people belonging to the same group adopt the same manner create a learning schedule that is not hindered by time of thinking and the same principles, regardless of how constraints. However, since this is not possible for all irrational or illogical they are, for the sake of maintaining a activities and quizzes due to class scheduling concerns, harmonious relationship or reputation. This is how online students should also adhere to set rules and instructions to trends start, as people start supporting trending opinions to avoid experiencing any problems. feel relevant, acknowledged and given importance, to point when they no longer care if what they say online reflects their Prioritization, nonetheless, is becoming a challenge for true opinions and values or not. many learners belonging to the younger generation due to the advent of the internet, especially with social media and Groupthink can lead to unhealthy decision-making patterns. online games readily accessible for everyone. Hence, it is of Like egocentric thinking, it is difficult to overcome. Breaking utmost importance for all learners to clearly identify and the cycle requires individuals to stand apart from the group understand their goals in life, which should comprise their and question opinions, thoughts, and popular ideas. This can priority list. be especially difficult for adolescents, but teachers can play a key role in encouraging independent thought and action in 7. Intolerance and Arrogance students. Intolerance and arrogance are never characteristics that will 3. Drone Mentality match the descriptions of genuine critical thinkers. Furthermore, finding solutions is almost impossible while If you have a drone mentality, this means you do not pay having close-mindedness. Without critical thinking skills, attention to what is going on around you. You only pay people usually react thoughtlessly and recklessly to attention to your point of view from atop, not minding what situations. Nonetheless, what they should do is assess and really happens on the ground at face value. Daily routines take responsibility for their decisions and action while also often lead to a drone mentality and can prevent or cause a accepting the rewards or consequences that follow those loss of critical thinking skills. This is especially true when decisions and actions. your mind automatically ignores stressors even when they are necessary for you to understand reality. Intolerance and arrogance undermine creativity, which, consequentially, leaves no room for other suggestions for This mentality is dangerous in a classroom because learners problem-solving. If learners believe no better solution to a forget how to respond to new circumstances. It also causes problem exists, a teacher must have students question their them to shy away from challenges for the sake of ease and logic. convenience. They prefer to stay cooped up in their comfort What do I think about this topic? zones, possibly due to fear of getting rejection, getting What could be the reason behind this thought? embarrassed in front of other people, or feeling disappointed of themselves. Where and how did I know about this information? What does the information imply? Teachers are students should be in constant connection with each other to remove whatever barrier there is that Would it be more beneficial if I change my view? makes learning awkward and frightening at times. Critical thinkers do not accept information presented in 4. Social Conditioning front of them right away. They sort out and filter what needs to be accepted and what needs to be rejected. That Unwanted assumptions and stereotyping lead to social is only possible if you keep asking questions and challenging conditioning. Commercialism and capitalism do not seem to the veracity of information presented to you. help either as they dominate media with information controlled by profit-based desires. This social conditioning Week 16: Critical Thinking and Critical Reading blinds us from the realization that we are making assumptions and stereotyping in the first place. We often How are critical reading and critical thinking different but still think not the way we should, but how capitalists want us to closely related with each other? think. Critical reading is definite as a technique for discovering The ability to think outside of the spectrum is a priceless information and ideas within a text while critical thinking is a asset because most students do not realize they are being technique for evaluating information and ideas, and for conditioned to think a certain way. Thus, completely owning deciding what to accept and believe. one’s thoughts is a special characteristic that not everyone gets to enjoy. Critical reading refers to a careful, active, reflective, analytic reading. Critical thinking involves reflecting on the validity of Teachers can help their learners by presenting objective what you have read in light of our prior knowledge and information and then by subsequently providing different understanding of the world. interpretations, which may be used by students as examples to create their own interpretations later on. For example, read the argument below which you may find humorous but relatable: 5. Biased Experiences Teenagers are buying expensive clothes to let them rot inside their closets. Personal biases can prohibit critical thinking because they prevent the thinker from being fair, inquisitive and open- Using the aforementioned sentence as example, critical minded. This kind of thinking can also prevent an individual reading will help you determine from a linguistic and from using experience, reasoning and common sense to semantic point of view if the word “teenagers” collectively make informed decisions. refers to “all teenagers” and if the word “rot” may be taken from a figurative sense. On the other hand, critical thinking can help you figure out whether you agree with the applicability of the statement in present setting and if you can relate to it from a personal standpoint. CRITICAL THINKING BY A CRITICAL READER With the definitions and explanations given, we can assume No one always acts purely objectively and rationally. It is of that critical reading appears, at least on most occasions, human nature to be subjective and irrational at times. before critical thinking. Only once we have fully understood a text (critical reading) can we truly evaluate its assertions Critical thinking includes a complex combination of skills. (critical thinking). These skills are the ones that you should adopt and inculcate in your system: The Two Together in Harmony 1. Rationality We are rational critical thinkers if we: In reality, critical reading and critical thinking work together. rely on reason rather than emotion Both are crucial parts— usually standing on different ends— require evidence, ignore arguments without any of the same intricate yet worthwhile cycle of progressive valid evidence, and follow evidence where it leads analysis and evaluation. Critical thinking allows us to monitor our comprehension as we read. are concerned more with finding the best explanation than being right analyzing apparent Critical thinking depends on critical reading. You can think confusion and asking questions critically about a text (critical thinking) only if you have prioritize truths and facts over emotional understood it (critical reading). We raise objective arguments satisfaction and ego-feeding based on facts and evidences, which we critically think about only after painstakingly researching for them through critical 2. Self-awareness reading. We are self-aware critical thinkers if we: weigh the influences of motives and bias The Usefulness of the Distinction recognize our own assumptions, prejudices, biases, or points of view Students might wonder why there is still a useful distinction accept both our mistakes and achievements in as between critical reading and critical thinking when they far as argumentation and reasoning are concerned belong to the same process and are closely linked with each other. 3. Honesty The usefulness of the distinction lies in its reminder that we We are honest critical thinkers if we: must read each text on its own merits, not imposing our prior recognize emotional impulses, selfish motives, knowledge or views on it. While we must evaluate ideas as nefarious purposes, or other modes of self- we read, we must not distort the meaning within a text just deception because we have a dissenting prior knowledge. Remember recognize what we feel for what they are and not that to think critically is to learn and re-learn actively, and for what we want them to be that is only possible if we keep our mind open for new information. 4. Open-mindedness We are open-minded critical thinkers if we: Reading Critically: Verifying and Validating the Text evaluate all reasonable inferences Certain tasks must be done when performing critical reading, set aside biases when analyzing and evaluating regardless of the nature of the text and the type of topic information involved. A writer must: consider a variety of possible viewpoints or address a specific topic perspectives define terms clearly remain open to alternative interpretations present logical, logical and objective evidences accept a new explanation, model, or paradigm because it explains the evidence better, is simpler, account for the common knowledge or has fewer inconsistencies or covers more data explain the exceptions, if there are any accept new priorities in response to a reevaluation show that the causes are able to precede effects of the evidence or reassessment of our real show conclusions based on logic through interests, and arguments supported by evidences do not reject unpopular views out of hand Thinking Critically: Evaluating the Evidence 5. Discipline We are disciplined critical thinkers if we: We often read to gather information that we can apply and perform. While correcting inaccurate information is easier are precise, meticulous, comprehensive, and exhaustive when we simply read to learn new information, the same might not be the case when we read for practical application. resist manipulation and irrational appeals That is, correcting something in your head is faster and easier avoid snap judgments than correcting your wrong action that arose from reading wrong information. There will be consequences involved at 6. Judgment this point. Hence, we must decide what to accept as true and We are critical thinkers with good and sound judgment if we: useful before applying them into any task. recognize the relevance and/or merit of alternative As readers, we want to accept as fact only that which is assumptions and perspectives actually true. To evaluate a conclusion, we must evaluate the recognize the extent and weight of evidence evidence upon which that conclusion is based. We do not want just any information; we want reliable information culled from reliable sources. Week 17: Critical Thinking and Logic Validity and Soundness Logic is the study of the criteria used in evaluating inferences A deductive argument is valid if it has a form that would make or arguments. it impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false, or if the conclusion follows necessarily from the An inference is a process of reasoning in which a new belief is premises. formed on the basis of or in virtue of evidence or proof supposedly provided by other beliefs. To test whether an argument is valid, you should first imagine that the premises are true—whether or not they actually An argument is a collection of statements or propositions, are—and then ask yourself, without appealing to any other some of which are intended to provide support or evidence in knowledge you have, could you still imagine the conclusion favor of one of the others. being false? If you can, the argument is invalid. If you can't, then the argument is valid. A statement or proposition is something that can either be true or false. We usually think of a statement as a declarative Note that validity does not have to do with the actual truth or sentence, or part of a sentence. falsity of the premises. It only has to do with what would follow from them if they were true. A valid argument can The premises of an argument are those statements or have false premises. For example: propositions in it that are intended to provide the support or evidence. All toasters are items made of gold. All items made of gold are time-travel devices. Therefore, all The conclusion of an argument is that statement or toasters are time-travel devices. proposition for which the premises are intended to provide support (in short, it is the point the argument is trying to It may be hard to imagine these premises as true, but it is not make). hard to recognize that if they were true, the conclusion would also be true. Some Example Arguments So, there's more to an argument's being a good one than God is defined as the most perfect being. A perfect being must validity. To be a good argument, an argument must also have have every trait or property that it's better to have than not to true premises. An argument with true premises is called have. It is better to exist than not to exist. Therefore, God factually correct. exists. A sound argument is an argument that is both valid and It has rained more than 15 inches per year in London every factually correct. year for the past 30 years. So you can safely bet it will rain more than 15 inches in London this year. An invalid argument may have true or false premises, and a true or false conclusion. A valid argument may have false Professor Santos said that the ratio of female to male premises with either a true or a false conclusion. The only students in the class was exactly 3:1. This means that there combination that is ruled out is a valid argument with true are 112 female students in the class, because there are 148 premises and a false conclusion. Sound arguments always students in the class total. have true conclusions. The Encyclopaedia Britannica has an article on symbiosis. It Argument Form stands to reason that the Encyclopedia Americana has an article on symbiosis as well, since the two reference works The validity of a deductive argument is determined entirely tend to cover the same topics. by its form. Consider these arguments. 1 is a prime number. 3 is a prime number. 5 is a prime All tigers are mammals. number. 7 is a prime number. Therefore, all odd integers No mammals are creatures with scales. Therefore, no tigers between 0 and 8 are prime numbers. are creatures with scales. Inductive Logic and Deductive Logic All spider monkeys are elephants. No elephants are animals. Therefore, no spider monkeys are animals. The distinction actually has to do with how strong the author of an argument intends the evidence or support to be. These arguments share the same form: All A are B, No B is C. Therefore, No A is C. All arguments with this form are valid. An argument is deductive if the author intends it to be so So the examples above are valid. Now consider: strong that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false, or in other words, that the conclusion All basketballs are round. The Earth is round. follows necessarily from the premises. A deductive argument Therefore, the Earth is a basketball. attempts (successfully or unsuccessfully) to provide full proof of the conclusion. All Jedis are one with the force. Yoda is one with the force. An argument is inductive if the author intends it only to be so Therefore, Yoda is a Jedi. strong that it is improbable that the premises could be true and the conclusion false, or in other words, that the These arguments also have the same form. All A are F. X is F. conclusion is likely if the premises are true. An inductive Therefore, X is an A. All arguments with this form are invalid. argument only attempts (successfully or unsuccessfully) to #4 may seem like a good argument because all the premises provide evidence for the likely truth of the conclusion, rather and the conclusion are true (at least in fiction), but note that than outright proof. the conclusion isn't made true by the premises. It could be possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. #4 is invalid, and all invalid arguments are unsound. #4 is not a good argument. Some Logical Pitfalls Begging the Question An argument begs the question when it makes use of a premise that no one who didn't already accept the conclusion would believe. Simply put, an argument begs the question when it reasons in a circle or presupposes the truth of the very thing it's trying to prove. Example: God exists, because it says that God exists in the Bible, and everything in the Bible is the true word of God. The Appeal to Ignorance Fallacy This fallacy is committed when something is concluded to be true simply because it hasn't been proven to be false, or is concluded to be false just because it hasn't been proven to be true. Reasoning in such a way is invalid. Something can be true even if no one has succeeded in showing it to be true. Example: No one has even proven that there is life after death. Therefore, there is no life after death. The Wishful Thinking Fallacy This fallacy is committed when someone concludes that something must be true in virtue of what he or she wants to be true (or doesn't want to be false) instead of what the evidence suggests. Unfortunately, just because there are better consequences to something's being true rather than false does not provide evidence that it is true. Example: The idea of life in a universe without God would be frightening and depressing, and very difficult to accept. Therefore, God must exist. The "Ad Hominem" Fallacy This fallacy is committed when an argument or position is rejected not in virtue of its logical merits, but rather in virtue of the character, personality, background or motivation of the person giving the argument or holding the position. However, a position can be true, and an argument can be sound, no matter how deplorable the person is. Who holds a belief has nothing to do with whether or not it's true. Example: Former president Clinton has argued in favor of increasing restrictions on the sale of guns. But President Clinton is a lecherous, adulterous, untrustworthy, draft- dodging old pervert, so his views must surely be misguided. Opinion and Fact An opinion is something that someone believes to be true. A fact is something that is true. Sometimes people disagree about what the fact of the matter is with regard to a certain question. In those cases, there are many opinions, but only one fact. Those people whose opinion agrees with the facts are correct; those who have other opinions are incorrect.