Criminological Research PDF

**Criminological Research** RESEARCH The scientific investigation of phenomena which includes the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that link man\'s speculation with reality. Systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical preposition about...

**Criminological Research** RESEARCH The scientific investigation of phenomena which includes the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that link man\'s speculation with reality. Systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical preposition about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. **KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH** A. [According to Purpose] 1\. Predictive or Prognostic Research 2\. Direct Research 3\. Illuminative Research B. [According to Goal] C[. According to the Level of Investigation] [D. According to the Type of Analysis ] E. According to Scope Action Research. F. According to Choice of Answers to Problems G.According to Statistical Content H. According to Time Element **Steps in Scientific Method of Research (Sequential)** 1. Determining (recognizing) the problem 2. Forming a hypothesis 3. Doing the library search 4. Designing the study 5. Developing the instruments for collecting data 6. Collecting the data 7. Analyzing the data 8. Determining implications and conclusions fro the findings 9. Making recommendations for further research. Attributes of Good Research Problem **S**=Specific-specifically stated **M**=Measurable-easy to measure by using research instrument in collection of data **A**=Achievable-data are achievable using correct statistical treatment/techniques to arrive at precise results **R**=Realistic-real results are not manipulated **T**=Time-bound-time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion of the activity the better Capsulizing Research Problem into Title Note: Avoid redundancies like "A Review of\...","An Analysis of\...", An Evaluation of\...\",\"An Assessment\...."and the like because even without those terms, the researcher will review, evaluate, assess or analyze the problem posted in the study. **Avoid Plagiarism** [Plagiarism] is an act of incorporating into one\'s work the work of another without indicating the source =the unacknowledged used of somebody else\'s words or ideas = an act wherein the writer uses passages, ideas, writings, and statements of others without giving due credit Construction of the Main Problem and Sub-problem of the Study 1.The main problem of the study may be stated by briefly pointing out the objectives, the subject and the coverage of the study. *Ex. The study aimed to assess the acceptance of an accurate polygraph results as evidence in court.* 2\. Specify the sub-problems of the main problem. *Ex. Specifically, it sought to answer the following sub-problems:* *1. To what extent does the application of polygraph examination affect the attainment of an accurate results to be presented as evidence in court in terms of: 1.1.exam inner\'s competency;* *1.2. facility and instrument;* *1.3. techniques and procedures;and* *1.4. subject\'s condition?* Theoretical Framework Types of Theories Guidelines in Choosing Theory Presentation of Theoretical Framework - The framework of the study is anchored on Conceptual Framework - an illustration of how research problems are generated from the theoretical framework of the study - it may be some sort of modification of the theoretical framework or personally conceptualized by the researcher Presentation of Conceptual Framework/Paradigm 1.The research paradigm must clearly show the major impact of the cited theory on the variables (dependent and independent variables) of the study. 2\. An existing theory may be capsulized in a research paradigm which may be adopted with some modifications. 3\. There must be textual explanations of the variables in the paradigm. Textual explanations should come before the figure or paradigm. Assumption and Hypothesis Note:In historical and descriptive researches, it is often times not explicitly expressed but left implicit, that is, unwritten 2.Hypothesis=tentative conclusion or answer to specific question raised at the beginning of the investigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to a specific question. Types of Hypothesis 1.Descriptive Hypothesis 2\. Statistical Hypothesis = use to answer questions on the relationship or differences of data obtained undescriptive questions. Forms of Statistical Hypothesis 1.Null Form - always the first temporary solution to a problem - basis of the action of acceptance or rejection - the word null in mathematics means empty zero - asserts that there is no significant difference or relationship between the variable - stated in negative *Ex. There is no significant difference between* 2.Operational/Alternative (Ha) stated in affirmative Theoretical Framework **[Theoretical framework is the foundation of the study.]** The theory should have a relationship with the issues posted in the study Types of Theories **Research Designs** **A. Qualitative Research Design** = involves in depth analysis of the problems. Its focused is to provide accurate description of problems w/o attempting to treat or employ sophisticated statistical tools or describe problems. **Types of Qualitative Research** **B.Quantitative Research Design**- its focused is to describe problems descriptively and numerically. Itutilizes more statistical tests to explain the nature, characteristics, relationships and differences of variables. Types of Quantitative Research 1.Descriptive- describes and interprets WHAT is. It is concerned with conditions or relationship that exist, practices that prevail, beliefs and processes that are going on, effects that are being felt or trends that are developing. 2.Correlational- it measures the extent or magnitude of association between two variables. measures the existing relationship of variables,also known as Associational Research 3.Experimental the researcher manipulates, changes or alters the inputs or independent variables to seethe effects on the dependent variables. Most commonly used methods to advanced scientific knowledge Sampling Designs A. Scientific Sampling -each member of the population is given the chance of being included in the sample. Population -specific aggregation of the elements- also known as universe Sample- representative portion of a whole, a subset of a population. Types of Scientific Sampling 1\. Restricted Random - applicable only when the population being investigated is homogenous. 2\. Unrestricted Random - the best random sampling design because no restriction is imposed and every member of the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample 3\. Stratified Random - it divides first the population into two or more strata. For each stratum, the sample items were drawn at random 4\. Systematic - a design which all individual in the population are arranged in a methodical manner, i.e. Alphabetical or chronological (age, experience) and the name may be selected in the construction of the sample 5\. Multistage- done in several stage, it can be two-stage, three, four or five stage, etc\..., depending on the number of stages of sampling to be used. 6\. Cluster Sampling - population is group into clusters or small units, for instance, block or districts, and are selected by random sampling or systematic sampling. =advantageous when individuals in the districts or blocks belong to the heterogeneous group B. Non-Scientific Sampling=in this sampling there is subjectivity on the on the part of the researcher because not all the individual in a population are given an equal chance of being included in the sample Types of Non-Scientific Sampling 1.Purposive =based on choosing individuals as sample according to the purposes of the researcher 2.Incidental =a design applied to those samples which are take because they are most valuable = the researcher simply takes the nearest individual as subjects of the study until the sample reaches the desired size 3\. Quota Sampling = popular in the field of opinion research due to the fact that it is done by merely looking for individuals with requisite characteristics Research Instrument- a device designed or adopted by researcher for data gathering Classification of Research Instrument Commonly Used Instruments Types of Questionnaires **2.Interview-** involves face to face contact between the interviewee and the interviewer Types of Interviews **3.Observation** may be defined as perceiving data through the sense: sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell. Types of Observation a. Formal Observation b. informal Observation c. **C**hecklist contains the items to be observed 2. Rating scale=used in observing behavior d. Anecdotal Forms-provides for the fewer breakdowns of dimensions or factors e. Mechanical Record**-**use of motion or still pictures, sound recording f.. Stenographic Recording Qualities of Good Research Instrument 1. Validity-degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure 3.Usability - otherwise known as Practicability degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily used. It may be determined thru: Statistics- science which deals with the systematic process of collecting, organizing, classifying, presenting, interpreting and analyzing data Types of Statistics A. Descriptive Statistics - it is used to determine the nature of variables without any attempt to critically compare the extent of relationships or differences with other variables Tools of Descriptive Statistics Specific Measures of Correlational C.Inferential Statistics used when in making inferences on the magnitude of differences of the samples from a large universe. Used in testing hypothesis like differences bet. two or more variables, treats bivariate and multivariate problems Types of Inferential Statistics 1.Parametric Test=applicable when the data measured is in interval or ratio scales Types of Parametric 2\. Non-Parametric = used in ordinal or rank or nominal data Types of Non-parametric Data Analysis an examination of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality, attribute, trait, pattern, trend, relationship among others so as to answer research questions which involve statistical techniques and procedures Types of Data Analysis 1\. Univariate = tests a single variable to determine whether the sample is similar to the population from which it has been drawn 2.Bivariate = it tests two variables on how they differ from each other 3\. Multivariate = it tests three or more independent variables at a time on the degree of relationship with dependent variables 4.Normative = the results of the study is compared with the norm 5.Status=stresses real facts relating to current conditions in a group of subjects chosen for study Interpretation of Data an act or instance of interpreting an explanation. This is done to give meaning to data generated from the instrument to answer the problems raised in the study Levels of Interpretation THESIS FORMAT Preliminary Pages