Childhood and Growing Up Course - Mangalore University PDF

MANGALORE UNIVERSITY CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION Mangalagangothri - 574 199 COURSE 1 Childhood and Growing up BLOCKS 1, 2, 3 & 4 B.Ed. DEGREE PROGRAMME (OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING) FIRST YEAR B.Ed. Childhood and Growing Up : Self learning Material for B.Ed. Degree Programme (Open and Distance Learning) of First Year prepared by Prof. Nagarathna K.R., Dr. Vamadevappa H.V. and Dr. Suneetha C.N. Published by The Registrar, Mangalore University, Mangalagangothri 574199, Karnataka. Year 2018-19 Developed by: The Director, Centre for Distance Education, Mangalore University, Mangalagangothri 574199, Karnataka. Printed at Datacon Technologies, #31/10, Left of Magadi Main Road, Behind Saraswathi Convention Centre, Bangalore 560 079 Bangalore. © The Registrar, Mangalore University DTP at: Sagar Offset Printers, Alake, Mangalore Childhood and Growing Up : Self-learning Material for B.Ed. Degree Programme (Open and Distance Learning) of First Year. Prepared by: Prof.Nagarathna K.R. Dr. Vamadevappa H.V. Dr. Suneetha C.N. Published by: The Registrar, Mangalore University, Mangalagangothri - 574199, Mangalore, Karnataka. Year 2018-19 © The Registrar, Mangalore University DTP at :Sagar Offset Printers, Alake, Mangalore Mobile : 9480228399 Printed at : Datacon Technologies, #31/10, Left of Magadi Main Road, Behind Saraswathi Convention centre, Bangalore 560 079 Bangalore. (For private circulation only) Course - I CHILDHOOD AND GROWING UP The Registrar Publisher Mangalore University Manalagangothri-574 199 Dr. Suneetha C.N. : Block - 1& 2 Course Writers Dr. Vamadevappa H.V. : Block - 3 Prof.Nagarathna K.R. : Block - 4 Prof. B.N. Manjunathaiah Course Scrutinizer Professor of Education (Rtd) Department of Studies and Research in Education University of Mysore Manasagangothri, Mysore - 570 006 Dr. Shashikala A Course Scrutinizer Advisor B.Ed.(ODL) Programme Centre for Distance Education Mangalore University, Mangalagangothri - 574 199 Mangalore, Karnataka. Dr. Chidananda A.L. Assistant Editors Mr. Nagaraja C.S. Contents Overview of the Course iii Block 1 : Learner, Development and Learning Unit 1. : Growth and Development : Meaning, Concepts and Characteristics 1 Unit 2 : Developmental Influences 17 Unit 3 : Meaning and Principles of Development, Relationship between 37 Development and Learning Unit 4 : Dimensions of Individual Development : Physical, Cognitive, 56 Language, Affective, Social, Moral, and their inter-relationships Unit 5 : Stages of Development : Developmental Tasks from 87 Infancy to Post - adolescence Unit 6 : Cognition and Learning 107 Block 2 : Understanding Childhood in Socio-Cultural Perspectives Unit 1 : Concept of Childhood 120 Unit 2 : Childhood across Cultures and Societies 132 Unit 3 : Impact of Diversity, Differences and Marginalisation on Childhood 145 Unit 4 : Childhood in Difficult Circumstances 163 Unit 5 : Understanding Children in the Socio-Cultural Context of India 181 Unit 6 : Pedagogical Implications of Diversity 200 ii Block 3 : Adolescence: Issues and Concerns Unit 1 : Contextual Frames of Growing up in Adolescence : Cultural 217 Differences and Adolescence Unit 2 : Contextual Frames of Growing up in Adolescence : Impact of 227 Economic Changes Unit 3 : Contextual Frames of Growing up in Adolescence : 239 Impact of Media Unit 4 : Adolescents in Difficult Circumstances 249 Unit 5 : Problems of Adjustment, Understanding of Emotional 259 Disturbance and Risk Behaviour, Identity Crisis, Parent-Child Conflict, Drug Addiction and Abuse Unit6 : Health Awareness in Adolescence: Personal Hygiene, 279 Nutrition, and Disease Prevention and Control Block 4 : Gender and Adolescence Unit 1 : Biological Influences of Gender and Educational Implications 293 Unit 2 : Social Influences of Gender and Educational Implications 305 Unit 3 : Cognitive Influences of Gender and Educational Implications 319 Unit 4 : Gender Stereotypes 327 Unit 5 : Similarities and Differences in Gender 338 Stereotypes of Different Genders Unit 6 : The Role of Society anf Educational Institutions in 347 Achieving Gender Equality iii Childhood and Growing up Overview of the Course Dear Students, You might have observed that the system of education has undergone many changes reflecting the changes in society. There is a paradigm shift in the individual as well as societal demands. Techno-pedagogic skills are invariably required now. You can sense the mismatch between the visions previously envisaged and the future visions in the field of education. This tells about the utmost need of developing capacities to understand and interpret notions about children and childhood, and about growing up in realistic contexts. Education should change its focus from developing mastery over the subject to the needs of the learner and learning process. At the same time, the thrust should be on changing individual learning to collaborative learning, from passive learning to active learning. In order to bring about this transformation from information loaded system of education to a constructive system, the application of psychological principles is important. Teachers play a significant role in shaping human development, which in turn depends upon the socio-cultural aspects of the country. This course titled “Childhood and Growing Up” aims to develop an understanding of children of different age groups. The main focus would be to enable the student teachers to grasp the different socio-political realities that construct different childhoods, such as the children’s lived-in contexts of family, school, neighbourhood, and community. Having an interdisciplinary framework, this course includes contributions from cross-cultural psychology, sociology, and anthropology related to child development and childhood. Thus, child development, childhood, and adolescence are viewed in different socio- economic and cultural settings. Issues of marginalisation, difference and diversity, and stereotyping in context with the children’s lived-in experiences are dealt with in this course, for example, living in slums, growing up as a girl, and growing up in a Dalit household. iv Block 1 deals with concepts like development and learning in general and learner in specific. Contributions from eminent persons like Jean Piaget (cognitive development), Erickson (psycho-social development), and Kohlberg (moral development) are discussed with illustrations. In Block 2, certain misconceptions regarding childhood, as understood in an ideal situation and its contrast seen in the present situation, are discussed. Childhood in difficult situations like jail, war affected families, conflict situations, very poor families, and urban slums, and understanding children in the socio-cultural contexts of India are the focussed concepts. Open system society and closed system society are discussed along with their nature and the respective merits and demerits for the development of an individual and society. Along with this, the pedagogical implications of diversity are also discussed. In Block 3, adolescence in context to socio-cultural difference, impact of economic changes and urbanisation, and the influence of media on future adults, i.e., adolescents, their problems, emotional disturbances, risk behaviour, generation gaps, drug addiction, and abuse, are considered for discussion. Concepts such as personal hygiene, nutrition, and disease prevention and control are also taken in to consideration. In Block 4, you will come to know about the biological, social, and cognitive influences of gender and gender issues, social influences of gender, and gender stereotypes. The units also deal with similarities and differences in gender stereotypes of different genders and efforts in developing non- gender-stereotyped children. It also throws light on changes in family structure and gender roles as well as the shift in gender relations. Of course, in conclusion you can see the relevant educational implications. Make the finest use of the study material. Wishing you all the very best! ********************** v Block 1 : Learner, Development and Learning Unit 1 : Growth and Development Meaning, Concepts and Characteristics Unit Structure 1.1.1 Learning Objectives 1.1.2 Introduction 1.1.3 Learning Points and Learning Activities 1.1.3.1. Meaning and Concepts of Growth and Development Check Your Progress 1 1.1.3.2. The concepts of Development and Learning Check Your Progress 2 1.1.3.3. The concepts of Development and Maturation Check Your Progress 3 1.1.3.4. The concepts of Development and Synthesis Check Your Progress 4 1.1.4 Let us Summarise 1.1.5 Answer to ‘Check Your Progress’ - 1, 2, 3 and 4 1.1.6 Unit - end Exercises 1.1.7 References 1.1.1. Learning Objectives After going through this Unit, the student teachers will be able to - Explain the meaning of growth; - Describe the concept of Development; - Explain the concepts that are related to growth and development; - Differentiate between the processes of growth and development; - Explain the characteristic features of growth and development; - Establish relationship between development, learning and maturation; and - Show how development is a synthesis of many functions and activities. 1 1.1.2 Introduction: Growth and development are on-going processes in every individual’s life. They are processes on a continuum. Due to this, one can observe many changes in the behaviour of an individual at different ages. For example, the behaviour of a young child is different from that of the behaviour of a youth or a high school student. However, experts and psychologists say that learning involves behavioural change. To be clear, learning is defined as “desirable behavioural change that is relatively permanent”. So, one can say that behavioural change with respect to respective chronological age is nothing but developmental changes and learning. All these have a very strong interrelationship. Thus, it becomes evident that the knowledge of childhood and growing up is a must for the teacher trainees. 1.1.3.1 Meaning and the Nature of the Concepts of Growth and Development What is growth? Now let us analyse how common people in their day- to- day life understand the concept of growth and development. We will study the following exercises from our day-to-day life and answer the questions given. Exercise I A young child of 4 years is compelling his father to give the car keys, so that he too can drive the car. But the father laughs and says “No dear, it is not possible for you now. To drive a car, you must first grow up and become a young man. Now you are just a young boy. When you become a young man, then the clutch, brake, and the gear of the car will be at a comfortable distance to your hand and feet, so you can handle them well and drive the car safely and easily”. Now try to answer the following questions 1. Why did the father not give the car key to the child? (a) Young boys cannot drive a car (b) Only adults can drive a car. (c) “Driving a car” is a skill and requires a certain level of physical development. (d) Usually young kids are crazy. Answer: ——————— 2 2 What is the implied meaning of the above question? Exercise II When Kamala was travelling in a city bus, she overheard a conversation between two women co-passengers. One lady was telling the other that one of her cousins had given birth to a baby girl. The surprising thing here is that the neonatal, baby girl, had 2 teeth on the lower jaw at the time of birth. Hearing this, the other lady was shocked, and asked “How is it possible?” Of course, the first lady did not have any specific answer to it. 1. What is the surprising thing in the above illustration and why is it surprising? (a) Appearance of two teeth in a new born baby at the time of birth. (b) According to developmental psychology, milk teeth appear at 6th to 7th month of a baby, but here it is not so, (c) How come only two teeth? That too on lower jaw. (d) There are specific stages of development, with specific features. In the above example, it is against this universally known fact. Answer: ——————— 2. What do you infer? Exercise III Once, a couple went to purchase a ready-made dress, for their daughter who is 6 years old. When the salesman showed a variety of dresses, the wife selected one and asked her husband, “Will it be OK”, He said, “it is OK, but for the size. Let us take a bigger size , so that even after 6-8 months, she can wear it. Otherwise it will become short for her”. It is true also. Their daughter is growing very fast and becoming taller. Of course it is due to the phase of development. 1. Why did the couple select a bigger size dress? (a) Their daughter was growing faster, and becoming taller. (b) In order to get a loose – fitting dress. (c) Larger size dresses will have longer durability. (d) Larger size dresses are available for a lesser price. Answer: ————————— 3 2. What do you understand? The first exercise indicates that the size of the hand and feet increases over a period of time. The second exercise indicates that there is some order in growth. The third exercise indicates that there will be an overall increase in the size of the human body with increase in age. Growth is the act or process, or a manner of growing, development and gradual increase. Growth is a stage of development or completed development. Growth is the process of increase in size. Growth is also defined as “an increase, as in size, number, value, or strength”. Now, let us analyse the meaning of growth Based on the inferences from the above exercises and the definitions given by experts, what can you understand about the concept and features of growth? Let us list them now. Growth is change; Growth takes time or is time consuming; Growth is orderly; Growth is measurable or quantifiable to a great extent; Growth can be positive or negative; and Growth is a step towards development. We have now understood the meaning and the features of growth. Now, let us move on to understand the concept of development. What is development? Let us study the following examples. Example 1 : Rangappa is an agriculturist. He used to cultivate his land using the plough and the ox. Today he ploughs the land using a tractor. There is a change in the way he does his work. What is it? Example 2 : Suma was reading the kannada text with great difficulty. After some practice, today she can read it fluently. There is improvement in her Kannada reading ability. What do you conclude from this? 4 Example 3: Nitin, a high school boy, used to participate in many debates conducted in different schools last year, but was not successful in winning a prize. But, today he is the proud winner of many prizes of many debate competitions. What is this due to? Example 1 indicates that there is a change in technology of agriculture leading to development. Example 2 indicates that there is a change or improvement in Suma’s reading ability leading to better performance. Example 3 indicates that there is change in the speaking or debating skills of Nitin leading to his achievement. These changes are known as development. To understand this better, let us look into some standard definitions of the term ‘development’ given by experts in the field. According to the Cambridge Dictionary, “development is the process in which someone or something grows or changes and becomes more advanced”. Development is also defined as “an event constituting a new stage in a changing situation”. “It is a specified state of growth or advancement”. “Development is said to be the resultant of interactions between the individual and his environment”. Now, we have understood two major concepts, namely, Growth and Development. Let us now find out how can they be distinguished. Growth and Development - Distinguishing Features: Growth being a physiological process, is always indicated by quantitative enhancement, like increase in size, height, weight, length and breadth of an individual. But development includes overall changes in which both quantitative and qualilative aspects contribute to each other. For example, a child’s growth from early childhood to later childhood (i.e., from 6th year to 12th year) can be visible and measurable in terms of height, weight, and size, whereas the changes in vocabulary, numerical ability, and competency to identify and decide good and bad - are not visible. Though there are distinctions between growth and development, one has to agree that these two are interdependent. But development is more comprehensive and complicated than growth. 5 Sometimes growth may occur devoid of development except in exceptional cases like extreme obesity and hormonal imbalance. Development involves different areas like physical, mental, social, moral, emotional and aesthetic. Growth is quantitatively measured and development is qualitatively measured. ‘Growth’ implies a limited and narrow meaning. It ceases when an individual reaches a certain age or stage. Contrary to this, development is more global and complex, and happens to be a continuous process. Growth is one of the integral parts of development. Whatever enhancement that is possible because of development, is highly influenced by growth. Growth cannot be imparted by training, where as in case of development, it is possible (For example, there is a variety training progress with reference to the acquisition of different skills). Growth is visible as well as measurable, but in case of development, though measuring is possible it is not easy. Development is also associated with other specific processes, like learning, maturation, synthesis, and finally equilibration. ‘Check Your Progress I’ Select appropriate answer to complete the sentences 1. The statement related to growth is __________ a) A ten years old boy speaks clearly than a two years old kid. b) Smitha a 5th standard student writes a very good handwriting. c) Ramu is the tallest boy in the class. d) Sarojini sings very well. 2. Growth is __________ a) An abstract concept. b) Visible, measurable and quantifiable. c) Enhancement in thinking capacity. d) The resultant of learning. 3. Development involves __________ a) Growth, learning, maturation, equilibration and synthesis. 6 b) Increase in height and weight. c) Increasing of certain abilities. d) Becoming an elderly person. 4. Development is __________ a) Not related growth. b) A concrete process. c) An abstract process, hence not possible to measure. d) A process involving both quantitative and qualitative enhancement. 5. Growth means, it __________ a) Cannot be imparted through training. b) Is the only factor that is responsible for development. c) Is under an individual’s control. d) Could be planned and brought out. 6. Development is a process involving __________ a) Only physical development. b) Different phases like baby hood, childhood, adult hood and old age. c) Ceases after crossing particular age. d) Chronological enhancement. 7. The areas which are identified under the process of development __________ a) Skills b) Vocabulary c) Numerical ability d) Physical development, cognitive/ mental development, language development, social, moral and emotional development 8) A properly developed person can be identified by his __________ a) Matured behaviour b) Huge size c) Talkative nature d) Childish activities 7 9) The terms ‘Growth’ and ‘Development’__________ a) Can be used inter changeably b) Are synonymous c) Are not one and the same d) Inter-dependent and hence, influence each other 1.1.3.2. The Concept of Development and Learning Use of mobile phones, of different versions (of different companies) along with a veriety of apps has made life in modern days very fast. Even society poses a demand on every individual to become computer competent. Or else, very soon they will lag behind others and become out- dated. This is a hard truth for teachers also. Teachers have to be abreast with the new inventions, information, and knowledge. This type of learning brings a transformation in an individual’s personality. Exercise 4 Now try to list the characteristic features of 4 to 5 year of non-school child as well as school going child. Non-School Child School Going Child It will be obvious that the school going child is more disciplined, well -behaved, understanding, and intelligent relevant to its age. He/She It maintains some amount of cleanliness. compared with that of a non-school child. This is because of the influence of the school environment, loving teacher, friendly peer group etc. It is very common to hear people saying that, if an young kid (below 3 to 4 year) is very mischievous and difficult to control, let him get enrolled in a school, then he will become disciplined, and will learn to respect elderly people. Development and Learning We know that development is a process, but learning is also a process. A person is the product of his learning. Whatever or whoever we are today, it is all due to our learning. Is it not so? No doubt in it. You know that learning brings changes in our behaviour. For 8 man, learning is the basic need. Psychologically speaking ‘Learning’ is a construct. (Construct means an idea or a mental impression that cannot be directly observed, but can be inferred from its effects). For example, concepts like energy, electrons, genes and ions, etc. Let us consider some definitions of Learning Experiences are the major means of learning, and our sense organs are the gateways of knowledge or experience. Experiences can directly or indirectly bring changes in an individual. Therefore, in general, the changes in behaviour, which are due to experience are called learning. Melvin, H. Marx defines learning as “a relatively enduring change in behaviour which is a function of prior behaviour (usually called practice)”. Learning is the process by which an individual acquires various habits, knowledge and attitude that are necessary to meet the demands of life in general. If you analyse all the above definitions, it becomes clear that, experience will help us to learn many things, (Fire – burns, water- wets, liquid – flows, etc.). For example nowadays if anybody senses the leakage of cooking gas in their home, immediately they take some precautionary measures, and will definitely try to avoid greater casualties. On the other hand, in schools and colleges, several learning environments and learning situations are provided to the students. They get trained in many skills. All such learning experiences bring transformations in the learners’ personality. Such changes are called learning and also development, rather all-round development. Therefore, we can say that learning and development are both complementary processes. ‘Check Your Progress’ - 2 Select appropriate answer to complete the sentences 1. Whatever we are today is because of __________ a) Our parents b) Our teachers c) Environment d) Our learning 9 2. Learning means __________ a) Acquiring knowledge b) Change of behaviour c) A desirable, relatively permanent change of behaviour d) Reading and writing 3. Most of our learning is due to __________ a) Reading books b) Obeying elders. c) Parents and teachers d) Experiences 4. Learning is a __________ a) Process that takes place in the classroom b) Process of continuum, from birth to the death of an individual c) Stops automatically after a certain age of an individual d) An indirect process which is not possible to observe 5. The school going child will __________ a) Learn certain social disciplines b) Become more intelligent c) Develop faster d) Become more obedient 1.1.3.3. The Concept of Development and Maturation What is maturity? Sometimes the term ‘Maturity’ is referred to the physical and physiological development only, but all of us know that it is more than that. A matured person will have a balanced state of mind, with wisdom and strong problem solving ability and will have also very good decision making power. Life skills and high emotional intelligence are also integral part of a matured person. Many times these qualities can be seen in people, irrespective of their age. Hence, we come across statements like “He is so matured in spite of his young age, and in some other case, he has grown up but maturity is zero”. 10 Observe the following illustration Anand was very anxious about his II PUC result as well as his NEET ranking. Unfortunately the results were not up to his expectation. He was disappointed and slipped into depression. After this, he tried to commit suicide. At this time of crisis, one of his lecturers came as a ray of hope. He was a friend, guide, and philosopher personified. He advised Anand to re-appear for the exams in the coming year. Meanwhile, the lecturer also suggested to undergo a thorough training in the coaching classes. This idea worked out very well. So Anand, got very good marks as well as good ranking in the CET. Now, he is pursuing his MBBS and is in the II Year. He was formanate to have a matured person as his guide. From this example deduct what is maturity? a) Being elderly. b) Knowing more c) Having philosophical knowledge d) Possessing good life skills, problem solving ability and decision making power. e) Giving guidance and worthy directions to the needy, based on one’s personal experience. This is common understanding of the concept of maturation, but there is some specific meaning to it. Development and Maturation Maturation is a complex process. Arnold Gesell used the term ‘Maturation’ to explain the concept of development. The apparent changes seen as physical changes are actually predetermined by genetic factors called genes. Growth naturally occurs due to genetically determined units, i.e., genes. According to him, there is an integral programming (like we see in computers) in physical and mental/cognitive growth and it is chronologically denoted by behavioural changes. For example, in our body, the nervous system, skeletal system, or the muscular system change systematically and automatically, year after year. This physical as well as mental growth will bring, an increased ability or capacity in an individual. Arnold Gesell says that all these are predictable changes, and maturity strongly depends upon such changes. For example, a 2-year old child cannot drive a car but a 20-year old man can do it. Therefore, ‘Maturation’ is considered as a physiological term. Krogman says that Maturation is ageing and Baldwin has defined “Maturation” as an increase in competency and adaptability. 11 Maturation greatly depends upon heredity and also partly on environment. The changes produced in behaviour by maturation are definitely linked with the unfolding and ripening of inherited traits, i.e., the process of natural growth. According to Biggie and Hunt (1968), “Maturation” is a developmental process within which a person from time to time manifests different traits, the ‘blue prints’ of which have been carried in his cells from the time of his conception”. Thus it becomes obvious that both learning and maturation have direct and positive relationship with development. ‘Check Your Progress’ - 3 Select appropriate answer to complete the sentences 1. Maturity means __________ a) Physical development b) Physiological development c) Both physical and physiological development d) Far more than physical and physiological development 2. A matured person will __________ a) Be older by age b) Be an experienced one c) Have vast knowledge d) Have a balanced state of mind with strong problem solving ability 3. The integral part of a matured personality is __________ a) Rich vocabulary b) Empathy c) Life skills and a high emotional intelligence d) A handsome/beautiful look 4. According to Krogman, maturation is __________ a) Ageing b) Learning c) Development d) Growth 12 5. According to Baldwin, maturation is __________ a) Physical growth b) Development of values c) An increase in competency and adaptability d) Transformation from adolescence to adulthood 6. Maturation is a process which __________ a) Greatly depends upon heredity and also partly on environment b) Greatly depends upon environment and also partly on heredity c) Depends upon both heredity and environment equally d) Depends only on environment 7. According to Boaz (1984) learning of complex tasks (symbolic learning) predominantly depends upon __________ a) Maturation of the cerebral cortex and its associated areas b) Size of the brain c) Conductive environment d) Effective teaching 8. The changes produced in behaviour by maturation are because of __________ a) Interaction with the environment b) Unfolding and ripening of inherited traits c) Formal learning d) Informal learning 1.1.3.4. The Concepts of Development and Synthesis Consider the following examples (i) Biologically, man is made up of different systems, namely, the nervous system, digestive system, respiratory system, excretory system, circulatory system, and the reproductive system. One system cannot replace the other system or perform the other system’s functions. That is to say, the nervous system cannot function as the digestive system and vice versa. Every system is specific in its structure and function and all the systems collectively make a functional organism, i.e., human being! 13 (ii) Let us take one more example. India has 29 states and 7 union territories. We know that each state or union territory has its own specific features and identity, but all these are subsumed in the polite “INDIA”. India is the whole and each state is a part of it. Whole cannot be there without the integration of its each part. In the same way, an individual because of the interaction between two important factors, namely, heredity and environment will undergo the developmental process knowingly or unknowingly. It can be acquisition of knowledge, learning certain skills, acquiring certain values and attitudes etc. All such individual aspects will get integrated in framing the personality of a person making him to lead a successful life in society. This also implies the equilibration process. Development and Synthesis Development is a complex process, having a huge number of inter-related bondages between the inter-and intra-domains, namely, cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. From birth to death, man learns many things. It may be by seeing, by hearing or even by doing. That is learning by doing. Life will make him to acquire and understand the knowledge, develop certain values according to his priority, and also learn certain skills that are essential to earn a livelyhood. But as a person he will be in his totality to the society. All the specific abilities of the different domains get synthesised during the process of development. ‘Synthesis’ is the cumulative process which involves four basic elements, namely, experience, maturation, equilibration and social transmission. That means the total transmission of the personality is possible due to socialisation, may be through parents, neighbours, school and peer group, and so on. Language development, intellectual development, social development, moral development, emotional development, and physical development, what we call as ‘personality development’ is the collective output of all the above dimensions of development of the different areas in one individual’s life span. Hence, as an individual grows chronologically, his personality gets transformed. ‘Check Your Progress’ - 4 Select appropriate answer to complete the sentences 1. Synthesis being a cumulative process involves __________ a) Experience, maturation, equilibration and social transmission b) Integration of several learnt skills 14 c) Subsuming of lower capabilities with the higher ones d) Addition of different abilities sequentially 2. The process of development is __________ a) The product of heredity and environment. b) The integration of language development and the communication skills. c) The synthesis of all the factors of personality development. d) The social transformation of an individual. 3. The analogy that suits synthesis is __________ a) All the individual parts aggregate to form a whole b) The whole could be disintegrated in to parts c) Just adding of or total collection of different factors d) None of the above 1.1.4. Let us Summarise ‘Growing up’ is a process, and can be considered as a part of development. The term ‘growth’ and ‘development’ are not synonymous. Growth is quantifiable, and ceases after certain age, whereas development is qualitative in nature. It is continuous and occurs throughout the life span. Physical enhancement is denoted as growth, but development is recognised in different areas, like, intellectual/cognitive, social, moral, emotional and value development. Growth cannot be achieved through training, whereas it is possible to attain development through training. Growth may occur irrespective of development, but for development, growth is essential. Development and learning are interrelated, and are reciprocal to each other. Maturation enhances the process of development. Development involves the synthesis of different developmental factors. Learning experience, maturation, synthesis, equilibration and social transformation- these factors collectively as well as separately contribute to the process of development. 15 1.1.5. Answers to ‘Check Your Progress 1, 2, 3 and 4’ Check Your Progress 1 1) c 2) b 3) a 4) d 5) a 6) b 7) d 8) a 9) d Check Your Progress 2 1) d 2) c 3) d 4) b 5) a Check Your Progress 3 1) d 2) d 3) c 4) a 5) c 6) a 7) a 8) b Check Your Progress 4 1) a 2) a 3) a 1.1.6. Unit-end Exercises 1. Explain the term ‘growth’. How is it different from development? 2. Bring out the relationship between development and learning. Give two examples. 3. How are maturation and development inter- related? Explain in detail. 4. Explain the process of development in terms of learning, maturation, synthesis, and social transformation. 1.1.7. References 1 Elizabeth Hurlock (32nd reprint 2016) - Child Development (Sixth Edition) Mc Graw Hill Educaiton, Indian Edition (2013-2017). 2 Laura E.Berk. Childhood Development (Ninth edition). Pearson Education Inc.(2013, 2017). 3 Chauhan S.S. (2011) Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.Ltd. (2005-2010). 4 Dandapani.S. (2005). Advanced Educational Psychology, Anmol Publications, Delhi. 5 Nataraj V. (2010). Vikasa Manovignana Srinivas Prakashana, Mysore. 6 Suneetha.C.N. (2011). Understanding the Learner and the Learning Process, Shruthiloka Prakashana, 2011. 7 John W.Santrock (2011). University of Texas at Dallas – Adolescence, TATA McGraw – Hill Edition. ********************** 16 Block 1 : Learner, Development and Learning Unit 2 : Developmental Influences Unit Structure 1.2.1 Learning Objectives 1.2.2. Introduction 1.2.3. Learning Points and Learning Activities 1.2.3.1. Areas of Developmental Influences : Heredity as One of the Areas of Developmental Influences ‘Check Your Progress’ 1 1.2.3.2. Environmental Factors Influencing Developmental Process ‘Check Your Progress’ 2 1.2.3.3. Health and Physiological Factors Influencing Developmental Process ‘Check Your Progress’ 3 1.2.3.4. Food and its Influence on Developmental Process ‘Check Your Progress’ 4 1.2.4. Let us Summarise 1.2.5 Answer to ‘Check Your Progress’ - 1, 2, 3 and 4 1.2.6 Unit - end Exercises 1.2.7 References 1.2.1. Learning Objectives After going through this Unit, the student teachers will be able to Identify the different areas of developmental influences; Explain the nature factors as one of the areas of developmental influences; Describe the nurture factors as another area of developmental influences; Recognise the factors that influence the development, other than heredity and environment; Illustrate the impact of deficient nutrition on an individual; and Justify that development is not either nature or nurture; rather it is nature and nurture. 17 1.2.2. Introduction All of us know that man is a social animal and his survival depends upon socialisation. From the womb to the tomb, man is influenced by many factors. Generally speaking, man is a said to be the product of his heredity and environment. There is a constant interaction between man and his surrounding environment. There are certain significant factors, which show their impact on a developing individual. So, in this Unit you are going to learn those factors, which have a strong developmental influence on a growing child. 1.2.3. Learning Points and Learning Activities 1.2.3.1. Heredity as One of the Areas of Developmental Influences Human development is influenced by several factors which are broader in their nature; hence they are called areas of developmental influences. Among these factors, heredity and environment are very important and influence an individual to a greater extent. Apart from these two, the other factors that are noteworthy are health, physiological factors, type of birth, nutrition or food and habit. One can also add religion, culture, socio-economic status of the family, occupation of the parents, geographical area in which the individual is brought up, and also literacy level. The factors, heredity and environment, are also denoted as nature and nurture. Nature factors are carried genetically by an individual from conception to birth. Roughly it is nothing but hereditary factors, whereas nurture factors are those that affect an individual after birth and is usually regarded as environment. Let us take these factors one-by-one and try to understand. Exercise 1 There was a young first generation couple in a village, who were very anxious to get a male child. But the couple had three successive female children, Since they were staying in a village, the people around started coursing the mother for not conceiving a male child. Her in-laws even wanted their son to remarry so that they would get a grandson. Because of all such due to all this, the wife got so much upset that she tried to commit suicide. The timely help of the neighbours saved her life. Try to answer the following questions: (i) Why did the wife not conceive a male baby? (ii) Why did the husband have three daughters only? (iii)Between a husband and wife, whose role is more is very significant in conceiving a male baby? (iv) What is the scientific answer to the above problem? 18 Answer: —————————————— You know that chromosomes are the vehicles of biological inheritance, and human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes. This number always remains constant. How is this constancy maintained? Let us try to understand the following explanation. Human cells have 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes, except for the germ or reproductive cells (i.e., sperm cells in males and egg cells in females) in which each will have just 23 chromosomes. Each person receives 23 chromosomes from the mother’s egg and 23 chromosomes from the father’s sperm. Of these 23 chromosomes, 22 are called autosomes, meaning that they do not determine the gender. The remaining chromosome is the sex chromosome, X or Y. Females have two Xs (XX) and males have one of each, i.e., XY meaning that females can pass only an X to their offspring, whereas males can pass either an X or a Y. This in turn means that the sperm cell of the father determines the gender of the offspring. If the fertilized egg (zygote) has XY combination then it will result in the birth of a male baby. Exercise II Observe your family members; you may come across certain features of your family members, which are actually a “born gift” from your ancestors. For example freckles, dimples, shape of the ear, colour of the eyes, type of hair ( curly hair or straight hair), colour complexion, shape of nose, etc. Even certain allergies, skills, talents and any such type of trait which make us unique are really fascinating. So let us use this activity to explore our genetic inheritance. Traits / Features Father Mother Paternal Paternal Maternal Maternal Grand father Grand mother Grandfather Grand mother Dimples Moles Shape of the ear Height Shape of nose Colour of the eyes Type of hair (curly and straight) Complexion 19 Population Genetics and Social Inheritance Exercise III In Karnataka, Kannada is the mother tongue. So generally people speak Kannada only. But the geographical features of Karnataka are not uniform. Similarly, though people speak Kannada, its pronunciation, style, accent and sometimes meaning also vary from place to place. For example, the Kannada spoken by the people of South Canara is quite different from that spoken in North Canara, Malnad, Coorg, Sirisi etc. However, people of the same region can interact without any problem. So, a child born in such intra-conservative society will acquire the same traits as his/her social inheritance. Now, try to list some examples with reference to the following traits. Traits/Features Tribes Coastal Sherpa Rural Urban People People People Staple food Language Occupational skills Health and physique Exercise IV APGAR SCORE APGAR is the first test given to a new born, on birth is usually given to a baby twice; once at 1st minute after birth and again at the 5th minute of birth. The 1st minute score determines how well the baby tolerated the birthing process and the 5th minute score tells how well the baby is doing outside the mother’s womb. Now look at the chart given below and try to illustrate this with any event (child birth) that you have come across or heard by somebody else belonging to the medical field. 20 APGAR score for Assessing the Newborn Scale 0 point 1 point 2point A Activity Absent Flexed limbs Active (muscle tone, colours) P Pulse Absent < 100 BPM > 100 BPM G Grimace Floppy Minimal response Prompt response (reflex to stimulation to stimulation irritabilities) A Appearance Blue pale Pink body Pink (skin colour) Blue extremities R Respiration Absent Slow and irregular Vigorous cry Heredity as One of the Developmental Influences: According to Ruch, “Heredity is defined as the totality of biologically transmitted factors that influence the structure as well as gender of the body. It refers to a biological mechanism as a result of which a child obtains something in terms of specific species or ancestral characteristics by which he can trace his individuality from his ancestral stock through his parents”. This includes certain physiological and psychological characteristics, which a person inherits from his ancestors. Apart from this, individuals are inherited by social communities also. Hence, an individual is characterised by biological inheritance (obtained from parents) and social inheritance (obtained from social community).Let us understand the biological factors that influence development. Mechanism of Heridity The germ cells are produced by the reproductive organs (from every individual in which sperms are produced by male and ova are produced by female individual). Sperms are produced by the testes in man (ten million sperms per day) and the ova are produced by the ovaries in women (once in each menstrual cycle i.e., approximately 28 days). Out of many spermatozoa, only one sperm (singe male germ cell) is able to reach the ripen ovum (single female germ cell), situated in the ovarian duct of the woman and fertilise it. Thus, the two germ cells fuse to form a single cell called zygote. This zygote contains chromosomes, and genes derived from the gametes of both the sexes, which are nothing but the hereditary units. 21 Chromosomes These are microscopic particles found in the nucleus of a cell. Chromosomes are made up of Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid (DNA) and proteins. The DNA is a long, ladder- like double helical chemical molecules, appearing like small granules. These granular structures are ‘genes’. Genes are responsible to carry the hereditary. In man, each cell has 23 pairs (2N), i.e., diploid number of chromosomes. During gamete formation, the germ cells undergo meiotic cell division, resulting in the process of chromosome reduction. Due to meiotic cell division, each gamete will have 1N number (i.e., haploid) of chromosomes. That means during the process of reproduction, any of the 23 of the 46 chromosomes from the female and 23 from the male are discarded. So, each gamete (whether male or female) will have 23 chromosomes. In humans, the sex chromosomes comprise of one pair of the 23 pairs of chromosomes. The other 22 pairs are called autosomes. Individuals having one XX (two X) chromosome are female and individuals having one X and one Y chromosome (XY) are male. In man, the male gametes will have 23 chromosomes (1N) in which one sex chromosome will be with either X or Y, whereas in woman the 23 chromosomes (1N) will also be present, but the sex chromosomes will be the X chromosome only. However, the union of male and female gametes will result in zygote formation. Now the zygote will have 2N or ZN, i.e., diploid number of chromosomes (Total 46), i.e., 23 pairs, thus zygote receives half of the ovum’s chromosomes (23) in number and half of the sperm’s chromosome (23). From this, it becomes obvious that the cause for the birth of a male child lies with the sperm cell, with the, X Y - sex chromosome. Genes Each chromosome is composed of many individual hereditary characters called “genes”. They also occur in pairs. One gene of each pair comes from the sperm chromosome and one from the ovum chromosome. The full set of genes is called “genome”. Genes are the units of heredity. They are of two types, namely dominant gene and recessive gene. The gene which gets expressed is called dominant, and the other one is called the recessive gene. Here, gene expression means the characteristic features of an individual like complexion, hair colour, eyes, height certain talents, etc., in an individual. All such expressed traits are due to the dominant gene, but the other recessive gene will also be present, as a latent gene. If in a pair, both genes are recessive, then the recessive trait will get expressed. Hence, children may have some of the features of their parents, but not a complete replica of their parents. 22 Johan Gregor Mendal (1822-1884), a Roman Catholic priest studied the mechanism of heredity by growing garden pea plants and beans. From his experimental results, he concluded that there must be some units in the germ plasma that are responsible for the hereditary transmission of qualities from generation to generation. He called them “determiners”, now these are called “Genes”. So, genes are the determining factors, influencing the developmental process of an individual. Genetics is the science of heredity. Human genetics deals with inherited characters, characteristics like physical, mental, normal as wells as abnormal in an individual, a family, a race or a population. It is concerned with the ways in which these characters are transmitted from generation to generation. It also includes the study of the way in which they express during the process of development in the life span of an individual. Sometimes heredity factors are referred to as nature factors. These are the basic characters that are carried by the individual from conception to birth. Nature Factors Inherited factors: Such factors are always predetermined or programmed elements that are in the form of DNA. For example, Any talents possessed by an individual sometimes will be because of heredity. Likewise, certain diseases, blood group or mutants, etc. are transmitted from generation to generation. Mental disability, which is an abnormal condition that causes significant distress/ dysfunctions can spread over to cognitive, emotional,behavioural and inter personal impairment. Down syndrome – When an individual has a full / partial extra copy of chromosome – 21, then the resulting condition is known as Down syndrome. Such additional genetic material alters the course of development. Maternal Nutrition: Usually it is advised that a pregnant woman should take balanced but yet enriched food. Added to this, one should give importance towards the intake of folic acid, iron, zinc, calcium and iodine. Folic acid plays an important role in the creation of a baby’s nervous system. Iron influences blood supply through placentia. Zinc and calcium are needed for embryonic development. Iodine deficiency may cause mental retardation in the growing child. Teratogens: These are factors that interfere with normal embryonic development. For example, 23 (i) Alcohol/drugs/X-rays/rubella- can affect cell division, so that embryonic deformation can take place and because of this a baby may born with mental retardation, poor growth, small head and unusual facial characteristic features and brain disfunctioning. This is known as Microcephally. (ii)Oxygen deficiency (due to smoking/passive smokers) will result in increased heart rate and premature delivery with low birth weight, less immunity or resistance power. (iii)Radioactive areas should be strictly avoided. High level of radioactivity can cause the death of a few months old baby in the womb. (iv) German measles can cause congenital rubella. (v) Mothers HIV+ during pregnancy will transmit the same to their offspring. Rh factor: It is a type of protein and its presence or absence causes Rh+ or Rh- blood type. If the father and mother are of the same Rh type, then the baby is safe. If not, for example the mother is with Rh- and the baby with Rh+, then the mother’s body rejects the baby’s blood. It is so because the antibody system of the mother recognises the baby’s blood as foreign material, and that triggers the antibody in the mother’s blood. Maternal Age: According to Dessner (1973), there is co-relation between the risks of foetus death and mother’s age. Type of birth: The birth of a baby could be normal or natural delivery, or through the application of some techniques (like forceps and sutures) or Caesarean section (C-Section). Scientifically it is proved that the time from 1 to 5 minutes at the time of a baby’s birth, is very important. Hence, new born babies are compulsorily subjected to the APGAR Test. This test helps a doctor to identify, whether a new born needs help in breathing or has any heart trouble. This check is called “Baby Cheek”. The APGAR score is based on a total score of 1 – 10. The higher the score, the better the baby is doing after the birth (7,8, and 9). A score of 10 is very unusual, since most new born babies lose 1 point for blue hands and feet, which is quite normal after birth. If it is less than 7, the baby needs medical attention; 4 to 6 is fairly low; 3 and below 3 is critically low. The causes may be difficult birth, C-Section and fluid in baby’s airway which needs immediate oxygen supply and cleaning out the air way to help in breathing. 24 Most of the time, a low score at the 1-minute immediately after birth will be normal by 5 minutes. However, this neonatal check-up does not necessarily indicate a long - term problem, particularly if the score improves at the five-minutes test. If an APGAR score ‘3’ or below ‘3’ remains the later time such as 10, 15 or 30 minutes may indicate long – term neurological damage, including a small but significant increase in the risk of cerebral palsy. However, the purpose of this test is to determine quickly whether a new born needs immediate medical care and is not designed to predict long-term health issues. ‘Check Your Progress’ 1 Select appropriate answer to complete the sentences 1) The hereditary characters are transferred from generation to generation through: __________ a) Culture, b) Education, c) Genes, d) Cells 2) According to J.Gregor Mendel Genes are __________ a) Determiners, b) Proteins, c) Organic matter, d) characters 3) Iodine deficiency may cause __________ a) Stunted growth, b) poor eye sight, c) short temperament, d) mental retardation 4) “Baby check” means __________ a) Testing a baby b) Medical test of a body c) APGAR Test d) Infant test 5) Down syndrome is caused by __________ a) The presence of 21st chromosomes in triplicate form. b) Malnutrition c) Ill health d) Bad environment 6) Teratogens are __________ a) Alcohol and drugs b) Any factor that affect embryonic development c) Oxygen deficiency d) Dust particles 25 7) APGAR score-3 indicates that __________ a) Baby is healthy b) Baby needs a critical medical care c) Pre-mature baby d) Under developed baby 8) The neo-natal baby is said to be healthy if the APGAR score lies in__________ a) 2,3 and 4 b) 1,2 and 3 c) 4,3 and 5 d) 7,8 and 9 9) Folic acid plays an important role in the development of__________ a) Circulatory system b) Skeletal system c) Nervous system d) Endocrine system 10) The condition in which a pregnant mother’s body rejects the baby’s blood _______ a) When both parents have Rh+ blood. b) When mother’s blood is Rh- and baby’s is Rh+ c) Mother and the embryo have same blood group d) When mother and the embryo have different blood groups. 1.2.3.2. Environmental Factors Influencing Developmental Process The earlier view of child development was focused either entirely on nature (heredity) or nurture (environment). Many favoured heredity and believed that we are born with certain talents and personalities. Contrary to this, others were of the opinion that we learn to do things for which we get rewards / praises and do not do things for which we are punished, including disapproval from elders. However, human development is not nurture or nature, but nature and nurture. Consider the following examples. Exercise V It is advised that pregnant ladies should have a conductive environment and pleasant situation. Therefore, they should read good books, listen to good music and devotional 26 songs. Why is it so? For better growth and development, the surrounding environment must be free of diseases, virus, drugs, chemicals and radiations because these can adversely affect the pre-natal development and produce birth defects. Such environmental agents are called teratogens. Now you prepare a list of teratogens based on your common sense and also on some scientific knowledge. 1. ——————— 2. ——————— 3. ——————— A child was born with a talent for music. The parents noticed the child’s interest and exposed the child to more music and gave him a toy-musical instrument. This increased the child’s interest in music further and his talent enhanced. The parents happily gave him extended opportunities like playing music / singing on stage, attending music concerts etc., This had a further positive effect on the child’s talent and his desire to play music. Exercise VI Children of the same family have a similar environment but the way they “grow” will be different. Is not so? The first born child grows up with a very different experience than the middle born or the youngest child. One may show temper tantrums (getting angry easily, aggressive, etc.,) or may present an easy – going behaviour. Now try to answer the following question: “Growing up” is a process which depends upon: a) Nature b) Nurture c) Food and health and d) Both nature and nurture. Answer—————————————— Environmental Factors Influencing Developmental Process Woodworth says “Environment” covers all the outside factors that have acted on an individual since he began life”. T. N. Khosho defines environment as “The sum total of all conditions and influences that affect the development and life of all organisms”. In psychology, environment stands for all those circumstances which are assert on the child from conception to death. It also means that the embryo, which is surrounded by the nurturing embryonic fluid and uterus is said to be a physiological environment. 27 The family environment, parents’ attitudes and the birth order of the child and its gender also influence the developmental process. Apart from this, social, cultural, societal, state, country, geographical areas, family, school, religion, caste and social organisation all will constitute an environment and influence the developmental process. Now let us analyse the factors separately. Child’s nutrition and fitness: Mother’s milk is always advisable for a developing infant. It contains all the essential nutrients with natural immune system, whereas malnutrition causes slow growth and other deficiency diseases. However, it is noteworthy that, after a certain age, swimming, cycling, learning classical dance yoga, sports and skipping are the best exercises for young kids to get physically fit. Family: The child’s development is much influenced by the socio-emotional conditions in the family to which it belongs. For example, if autocratic and democratic home environments are taken into consideration, the middle way is good like it is between of either full freedom or no freedom at all. Freedom with discipline is best. Home and neighbourhood: These two factors are essential for enabling a child to get socialised. It is observed in several demographic studies that rural societies are more effective in developing good culture, co-operation and also in helping nature. One can see a tight knit inter – personal relationship among family members. Family is said to be the basic unit of a society, and after family, the very next will be the neighbours. Hence, these two factors influence an individual’s development to a greater extent. School : It is the place where a child learns things that are essential for a social life. The ego centric culture of “I” is gradually transformed into the collective noun “we”. Hence, school is said to be an important socialising medium. School rules make the child to understand the limitations of freedom, actions and speech or usage of words (Language Development). Lessons in moral education and civics and all other curricular activities in the school will make the child to become more civilised. Peer Group: Friends of the same age form the peer group. Children are more comfortable with peer groups whether it is playing or learning. They learn to behave according to the peer group norms, rules and regulations and also withstanding nature because they get the satisfaction of “belongingness” when they are associated with a peer group. Mass Media:The influence of mass media has become uncontrollable now a days. This is due to advanced science and technology, and also processes like modernisation, globalisation, liberalisation and privatisation. Media violence has resulted in aggressive behaviour among children. They have become insensitive towards violence. This is more 28 dangerous for children who are younger than 8 years. It is because they are unable to differentiate between reality and fantasy. Role of play: “Play is the highest expression of human development in childhood”- Fridrich Frobel advocates that play promotes good health, emotional and social wellness. In a study conducted by Brown and Lomax on a group of murderer’s and Noble Prize winners with respect to their childhood, showed that lack of play option in their childhood was key factor that led them to become the adults they were. According to expects, play can help to modify antisocial behaviour in children. Hence early childhood is dominated by play way method. Cognitive, social, emotional and moral wellbeing are all enhanced by social competence, which in turn gets developed by play. Children especially become more sociable when they interact with their playmates. Arguing and negotiating gives children the platform through which they can learn how to plan, negotiate and solve problems. When exposed to play, children easily learn how to make decisions and master important skills and this helps them to develop confidence and to be proud of themselves Experience in the sports field helps children to develop empathy, compassion and generosity and finally it makes them to understand the real meaning of friendship. Research studies have shown that there is a strong link between early active social play and the development of good communication skills later in the life. Creativity is developed during play. Toys can help in learning letters, vocabulary, spelling as well as pre-reading skills. In the current lifestyle most of the children are denied of opportunities to play. Hence, their development is less effective. TV, Video games and the Internet consumes most of their time and thereby has an adverse effect on their growth and development. Even parents put their children for schooling very early where by the children get less time to play and to spend free time at home. ‘Check Your Progress’ 2 1) For a human embryo __________ a) The embryonic fluid and the womb is said to be the physiological environment. b) Parents and home in the environment. c) Mother is the environment. d) All the members of the family is the environment. 2) For a child, socialisation starts at __________ a) School 29 b) Family c) Neighbours d) Social gatherings 3) “Play is the highest expressions of human development” according to _______ a) Fridrich Frobel b) Pestalazzi c) John Dewey d) Jean Piaget 4) Researches have shown that there is a strong link between __________ a) Social plays at early childhood and good communication skills in later life b) Performance in sports and intellectual development c) Sports and team spirit d) Leadership quality and sports activities. 5) Exposure to sports will help children to learn easily the concept of _________ a) Unity b) Sportive spirit c) Social life d) Empathy, compassion, generosity and finally the real meaning of friendship. 6) One of the uncontrollable factors that influence the child development is _____ a) Science and technology b) Mass media c) School d) Neighbours 1.2.3.3. Health and Physiological Factors Influencing Developmental Process The endocrine system is responsible for the many amazing bodily responses like growth, sexual development, the fight or flight response to danger, production of insulin and its impact; malfunctioning of thyroid gland etc. 30 Exercise VII Let us take a situation in which some cultural competition is going on. You notice that, the person next to you is sweating profusely and restless. On enquiring you come to know that he is also one of the contestants. Then very casually, you may tell that one must take competitions in a sportive manner, winning or losing should not be the big issue and so on, to which that person says he is not scared of stage performance, rather he is very confident. And this triggers several questions in you like, why is the person sweating so profusely with, trembling hands and apparently looks like he lacks confidence? What could be the answer to the above question? (i) He was lying (ii) He was not a competitor (iii) The apparent appearance and his level of confidence have no connection. (iv) The observed features are symptoms of malfunctioning of the thyroid gland. Answer: —————————————— Health and Physiological Factors Influencing Developmental Process Health is another influencing factor that alters the developmental process. If a child suffers from ill health, then its development is also affected. Certain diseases like congenital heart disease may cause retardation in the child’s activity and the child’s personality will lack in the process of socialisation. The child may develop a shy nature or inferiority complex. Diseases put constraints on the capacities and potential powers of children. If children are allergic to dust, moist and fog or towards small particles, then they show a maladjustment in nature. They will deviate from their normal behaviour. They may show their dependency and feeling of insecurity. Similarly, if by birth a child has some nervous weakness or epileptic symptom then at a later stage, they become scared, restless and depressed individuals. Human physiology is most dependent on endocrine glands. Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete hormones directly into the blood stream, rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus, and renal glands. Their secretion influences the metabolic activities of an individual. And also, they have an immense influence on certain factors like, emotions, intelligence, decision making power and other skill based performance. 31 ‘Check Your Progress’ - 3 1) Apart from heredity and environment, the process of growing up is affected by __________ a) Socio-economic status b) Literacy and occupation c) Health d) All the above 2) Ill -health condition basically affects the child’s __________ a) Socialisation b) Environment c) School attendance d) Sports ability 3) If children are allergic to dust, moist, and fog, then they show__________ a) Good adjustment b) Maladjustment c) Normal behaviour d) Dominant behaviour 4) Over secretion of thyroid gland may result in__________ a) More intelligence b) High emotional quotient. c) Lack of confidence and palpitations d) Balanced personality. 5) Endocrine glands include__________ a) Salivary gland thyroid and para thyroid gland b) Sweat gland, salivary gland and thyroid gland c) Mucous gland, para thyroid and thyroid gland d) Pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid, para thyroid and adrenal gland 6) Adrenal glands are responsible for__________ a) Fear, fly and fight (3f) behaviour b) Depressed behaviour c) Lack of confidence d) Over confidence 32 1.2.3.4. Food and its Influence on the Developmental Process Exercise VIII Observe the following figure and list the morphological features Child suffering from Kwashiorkor disease Kwashiorkor disease is a severe form of malnutrition caused by a deficiency in dietary protein. The extreme lack of protein causes an osmotic imbalance in the gastro-intestinal system causing swelling of the gut - diagnosed as an oedema or retention of water. Exercise IX Observe the following figure and list the morphological features Child suffering from Marasmus disease Marasmus disease is a form of severe malnutrition characterised by energy deficiency. A child with marasmus disease looks emaciated. It can be distinguished from Kwashiorkor disease in that, Kwashiorkor is a protein deficiency with adequate energy intake, whereas Marasmus disease is inadequate energy intake in all forms, including protein. 33 Food is the substance consumed by an individual in order to get nutritional support. Generally, our food includes six types of nutrients, namely, protein, fat, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins and lastly but not the least, is water. Food is very important for growth and development. So, for body building, energy liberation, expression of all the potential abilities, food is the basic need. One needs to eat a balanced diet, which includes both essential macro and micro nutrients. Malnutrition will not result in a healthy child. It may result in deficiency diseases like obesity (excess fat in the diet), Kwashiorkor disease (protein deficiency), Marasmus disease, etc. ‘Check Your Progress’ - 4 Select appropriate answer to complete the sentences 1) Our food must be__________ a) Rich in proteins b) Enhanced vitamins c) Devoid of fat d) A balance diet 2) In a balanced diet__________ a) Water is not included b) Water is a must c) Milk and curds are important d) Oils and fats are eliminated 3) Food includes nutrients like,__________ a) Pulses, cereals fruits and vegetables b) Protein, fat and carbohydrates c) Protein, fat, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins and water d) Carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals 4) The Protein deficient food may result in__________ a) Malnutrition b) Weakness c) Kwashiorkor d) Marasmus 5) Marasmus disease is the result of the nutrition with __________ a) Lack of protein b) Carbohydrates 34 c) Inadequate energy intake including protein d) Lack of fat and lipids 6) Excess intake of food may result in __________ a) Stouty personality b) Fastering growth c) Obesity d) Good resistance power 1.2.4. Let us Summarise Human development is a continuum process along a continuum and it is influenced by several factors, which are denoted as areas of developmental influences. Factors like heredity and environment take up the major share as areas of developmental influence. Apart from the above two factors, the following are also significant in influencing the developmental process: − Health, − Physiological aspects, − Type of birth and order of birth and birth − Nutrition Added to this, factors, such as, religion, culture, socio-economic status of the family, occupation of the parent, geographical area in which the individual is brought up and the literacy level of the parents could also influence a developing individual. Genetics is the science of heredity and genes. Nature factors could be considered as inherited factors, which are predetermined. The APGAR test is commonly called “Baby Check”. Nature factors could be considered as influencing factors like, child’s nutrition, family, home and neighbourhood, school, peer group, mass media and sports or role of play. 1.2.5. Answer to ‘Check Your Progress’ - 1, 2, 3 and 4 ‘Check Your Progress’ - 1 1) c 2) a 3) d 4) e 5) a 6) b 7)b 8) d 9) c 10) b ‘Check Your Progress’ - 2 1) a 2) b 3) a 4) a 5) d 6) b ‘Check Your Progress’ 3 1) d 2) a 3) b 4) c 5) d 6) a 35 ‘Check Your Progress’ 4 1) d 2) b 3) c 4) c 5) c 6) c 1.2.6. Unit - end Exercises 1. What are the areas of developmental influences? 2. Explain the mechanism of heredity. 3. What is meant by nature factors? Explain any two of them. 4. Explain the significance of the APGAR test. 5. What are nutrient factors? Explain any two of them. 6. Explain the role of play in the process of “growing up”. 7. How do the physiological factors affect the process of development? Illustrate your answer. 8. What types of food is important for a growing child? Explain. 9. What are deficiency diseases? Explain. 1.2.7. References 1 https://www.classroom.kidshealth.org/9to12/body/system/endocrine /pdf 2 https://old.nios.ac.in/secpsy.cour/unit/IIpdf 3 Elizabeth Hurlock (32nd reprint 2016). Child Development, Sixth Edition, McGraw Hill Education Indian Edition. 4 Lura, E.Berk (2013-2017). Childhood Development (Ninth edition), Pearson Education Inc. 5 Chauhan S.S. (2010). Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.Ltd. 6 Dandapani.S. (2005). Advanced Educational Psychology, Anmol Publications Delhi 7 Nataraj V. Vikasa Manovignana (2010). Srinivas Prakashana, Mysore. 8 Suneetha.C.N. (2011). Understanding the Learner and the Learning Process, Shruthiloka Prakashana. 9 John W.Santrock (2011). University of Texas at Dallas - Adolescence TATA McGraw– Hill Edition. ********************** 36 Block 1 : Learner, Development and Learning Unit 3 : Meaning and Principles of Development, Relationship between Development and Learning Unit Structure 1.3.1 Learning Objectives 1.3.2 Introduction 1.3.3 Learning Points and Learning Activities 1.3.3.1. Meaning of the Principle of Orderly Sequence ‘Check Your Progress’ 1 1.3.3.2. Principles of Development ‘Check Your Progress’ 2 1.3.3.3. Relationship between Development and Learning ‘Check Your Progress’ 3 1.3.4. Let Us Summarise 1.3.5 Answer to ‘Check Your Progress’ - 1, 2 and 3’ 1.3.6 Unit end Exercises 1.3.7 References 1.3.1. Learning Objectives After going through this Unit, the student teachers will be able to - Explain the meaning of orderly sequence in Development ; Mention the general Principles of Development; Illustrate with examples the general Principles of Development; Bring out the relationship between Learning and Development; Identify the criteria that determine Readiness to Learn and; and Develop rationale for certain Principles of Development. 37 1.3.2. Introduction There are many mysterious things in this universe. Science has opened up and solved some of these mysteries. But the rest are left untouched. If you take the universal pattern of development in man, you will be surprised by its systematic and methodical way of occurring. Man must and should undergo this universal pattern of development, irrespective of his colour, caste, country and race. So, in this Unit you will understand these universal, i.e., general Principles of Development supported by several examples and illustrations. 1.3.3.1. Meaning of the Principle of Orderly Sequence Exercise I After a very long time I got an opportunity to visit my native place. As a matter of curiosity, I watched my neighbours and also the school where I received my elementary education. I noticed many changes. In the school, the classrooms appeared in a different way. Desks were no longer arranged in rows, but grouped in intimate clusters. There again I saw a room with computers, smartboard, and LCD projectors! And I came to know that, one of my classmates had become a famous lawyer. Few of them had settled in America. My own city had changed quite a lot. Then I told myself “Change is an ever occurring phenomenon, but let it be for prosperity and growth”. Change is permanent! Similarly, you might have certain experiences. Now try to trace that with the process of development. Answer: —————————————— Exercise II Observe the following figure: Change of shape of the embryo during the pre-natal period. 38 (1) What is the first striking feature that you observe in the above figure? (a) A small sleeping body. (b) A small baby, like, a question mark (c) A gradual enhancement in the size of the body. (d) Head is too big compared with the other parts of the body. Answer: —————————————— Exercise III Observe the following figure. Compare this with the previous picture and list the features in the above given picture (as types of changes) (1) Change in size. (2) Change in proportions. (3) Disappearance of old features (4) Acquisition of new features. Answer: —————————————— Every individual has to undergo the process of growth and development. One may grow faster or lag behind when compared with others. But whatever may be the individual specificity, it is true that each and every one must pass through certain sequential but irreversible stages. There is no exception or exemption for this phenomenon. And you should know that “Development” is a staged or phased process. These are called Developmental Stages or Developmental Phases, which are not only sequential, but systematic. That is to say, the developmental process is guarded by some general rules or principles, which are universally accepted. Now let us try to understand these universal principles of development one at a time. 39 (i) Principle of orderly sequence Developmental process has a pattern of its own. Each stage of development has its corresponding features and behaviour, followed by consecutive higher levels of development with respective features / behaviour. Each stage is irreversible. The principle of orderly sequence can be explained with respect to three dimensions. Now look at the figure. X - Proximo - distal principle Y – Cephalo - caudal principle Z - Principle of locomotion. (a) Cephalo-caudal principle In this the process of development proceeds from the head to the foot. i.e., longitudinal axis. That is why the baby first gains control over the head and arms and then the legs so that it is able to stand. Even after birth, the head develops in advance of the lower parts of the body. The Cephalo-caudal trend is where the infants learn to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs. The process of development in the Cephalo- caudal direction means from head to tail. This means that improvement in the structure and function comes first in the head region, then in the trunk, and lastly, in the leg region. (b) Proximo-distal Principle In this, the process of development proceeds from the centre line of the body to the peripheral parts. This can be understood by observing infants. The infant uses the shoulders and elbows to catch an object and exhibits whole arm and forearm movements before he shows the hand grip or finger grip. It is the tendency for more general functions of limbs to develop before more specific or fine motor skills. It comes from the Latin words, proxim- which means “close” and “distal” meaning “away from”because the trend essentially describes a path from the centre to outwards. Figure Cephalo-caudal and Proximo-distal Principals 40 Growth proceeds from the centre or middle line of the body to the periphery or in a proximo distal direction. This proximo-distal development is bilateral and symmetric for the most part, on both sides of the body. (c) Locomotion Human beings start their locomotion at the infant stage. The sequence will be like, creeping, crawling and walking. The time may vary in the development of locomotion but every infant will pass through these stages. The above figure illustrates the sequence of development of walking (locomotion) ‘Check Your Progress’ - 1 Select appropriate answer to complete the sentences 1. Cephalo-caudal principle means __________ a) Development proceeds from bottom to top of an organism b) Development proceeds from head to foot c) Development proceeds from central to peripheral d) Development proceeds from peripheral to central 2. Proximo - distal principle means __________ a) Development proceeds from centre to peripheral b) Development proceeds from peripheral to centre c) Development proceeds from head to foot d) Development proceeds from foot to head 3. Development process is influenced by__________ a) Nature b) Nurture c) Nature or Nurture d) Nature and Nurture 41 4. During the development process, the baby first gains control over the hand and then towars the legs. This principle is called __________ a) Proximo-distal b) Cephalo-caudal c) Maturation d) General to specific 5. An infant exhibits whole arm along with forearm movements before it shows the handgrip or finger grip. This is according to the principle of__________ a) Equilibration b) Maturation c) Proximo distal d) Cephalo Caudal 6. The infant uses the shoulders and elbows to catch an object before it uses wrists and fingers. It is due to__________ a) Development that proceeds from head to foot b) Development that proceeds from central axis of the body to the peripheral parts c) Half-developed muscular system d) Half-developed nervous system 7. The sequence of locomotion at the babyhood is__________ a) Crawling, creeping, standing, and walking b) Creeping, crawling, standing, and walking c) Sitting, creeping, crawling, and walking d) Standing, walking, crawling and creeping 8. Development follows the principle of orderly sequence means__________ a) The developmental phases occur one after the other b) Advanced developmental phases are followed by primitive development c) Primitive developmental stages are followed by advanced developmental phases d) It is irreversible 42 1.3.3.2. General Principles of Development We often come across the debate whether genetic or environmental factors play a significant role in influencing development”; a nature – nurture controversy. Here, nature means in-born biological factors, i.e., the heredity information that a child receives from the parents at the moment of conception and nurture means the complex forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and physiological changes before and after birth. Read the following example Identical twins Adriana and Tamara Adriana and Tamara, identical twins separated at birth by adoption were unaware of each other’s existence. When they met at age 20, they discovered many similarities like academic achievement, love of dancing and even taste in clothing. This clearly shows that some times heredity also contributes to psychological characteristics. Read the following research finding : Man acquires certain traits and learned behaviour as a result of his interaction with the environment. For example, many children in China are raised to be shy, whereas many in Zambia and the United States, are raised to smile and be outgoing. (X.Chen, Rubin and Sun, 1992; Hale –Benson, 1986; D. Y-F Ho, 1986; 1994, Hunstiager Jose, 2006). Exercise IV Imagine the following three children. First, let us meet Ms.X. Her environment is full of stimulation. She has two older siblings, who interact with her regularly and her mother is at home, during the day. She also goes to the day care centre, three mornings a week. Now let us meet Y- whose environment is less stimulating. He is an only child, mother suffers from depression. He does not attend any day care programme. However, his basic needs are met. But he has very little interaction with others. Therefore, he spends his most of time watching TV. Finally, we meet Z. X and Y are growing up in the U.S., whereas Z in China. He has loving parents, and grandparents, who give him lots of attention and care. He does not attend daycare. But time is spent, by playing daily at home. He often interacts with other children of his neighbourhood. All the above kids are of the same age, but their experiences and culture are different. Do you think that in the above examples, different environments and culture influence their development? If yes, in what way? 43 Answer: —————————————— Exercise V Event Illustration- Once it happened like this: I was travelling in a city bus. Since there was a heavy rush, a young mother holding her six to eight month baby in her arm was standing very close to me. After some time, as the city bus, gained its normal speed, the baby, started pulling my hair!! It was so painful. Then immediately the mother helped to loosen the fist of the baby, and relieved me from the pain. What made the baby to hold the hair so tightly and why it did not loosen its fist easily? a) The baby was attracted by the flowers so tried to catch it. b) Physical development, the corresponding nerve co-ordination for the tight grip and unfolding of the fist was not yet developed, and hence, it knows how to have strong grip, but unfolding was not possible for the baby. c) Since it was a city bus, there were few distractions for the baby and hence, the baby did not relax its fist. Answer: —————————————— General Principles of Development Development is the product of heredity and environment: We know that an individual is born with certain in-built characters. With this, the individual will interact with the surrounding environment knowingly or unknowingly resulting in gradual change and transformation of the personality. Therefore, an individual is said to be the by- product of the constant interaction of the individual with his environment. Development is a continuous process: An individual’s life starts at the stage of conception and will continue without any stop until death. Of course, it may not be at a uniform speed. The changes, however small and gradual, will continue to take place in all dimensions of one’s personality. During the infant stage, physical growth is faster; and a sharp rise in vocabulary can be observed during pre-school years. Development proceeds from general to specific: For a young baby, the whole world appears to be very confusing or no meaning at all. Later on, as the developmental process proceeds, the child will learn many specific and special behaviours. For example, in the beginning, crying is the only language or way of communication. Later, the real language 44 with vocabulary gets developed, so that the child can express his feelings in a different way altogether. Similarly, the expression of sorrow or grievance will vary as the individual grows, Like at the infant stage, it will be crying, screaming and later at the adult stage, it may be confined to facial expression, choking the vocal cards, tears in eyes, silence etc. Likewise, in the beginning, a body shows the arms movement without intention, but later these general motor movements will be converted into specific responses like catching an object or trying to reach a particular thing. Development shows bilateral to unilateral trend: You know that, a human body shows bilateral symmetry. (That means to say that the human body with reference to its anatomy, structural and functional analysis shows two equal halves. It is true with any organ or organ system of a human body. If the body is cut vertically along the central axis then it will result in two equal halves. This is called bilateral symmetry. Therefore, whether it is left hand or right hand both are equally capable of doing any work at the beginning stage of development. It is obvious in infants, i.e., an infant up to its 2 and a half years of age uses both the hands with equal ease. Only after two and a half years, the hand preference is expressed (either left or right). This is known as Handedness. Developmental aspects/areas of development are inter-related: Development being a complex process involves different areas with respect to systematic unfolding of pre-determined factors. For example, it includes aspects/areas like physical, mental or cognitive, social, language, moral and emotional development. One can easily notice the inter-relationship between these areas. They obviously influence each other, like; language development is fostered by social development. Similarly the physical development in the brain in general and the central nervous system in particular, directly influence the cognitive development of an individual. Take for example, the influence of the endocrine glands (physiological aspects) on the development of a balanced personality. Hence what we see in an individual as his personality is nothing but a cumulative output of all such different areas. So the different areas (such as physical, physiological, social, emotional, cognitive/intellectual, moral and attitudes and values) are all reciprocal, complementary and supplementary to each other. Developmental process varies from individual to individual: Though there is a uniform pattern of development for human beings, the rate of development varies from individual to individual. Each child will have its own pace of physical, mental, social and emotional development. It is so because each child will have its own inherited factors as well as the environment. It is like a unique combination of heredity and 45 environment, which is very specific to each individual. Studies have shown that children who are tall at one age are tall at other ages, while those who are short remain short. Children with accelerated mental growth continue to accelerate. But those who are mentally deficient rarely catch up and are likely to become more and more retarded as they grow older. Now we have to rethink about the parents and teachers because they tend to expect children of the same age as being alike, and also expect similar behaviour from them. It is like what “works” with one child automatically “works” with another child! Development involves integration: By this time you all know that, there are major as well as subtle but different aspects in the process of development. But all such factors are either clubbed together or subsumed hierarchically to form one integrated whole. Hence development is said to be cumulative in its nature. Sometimes it may show the tendency of moving from part to whole, but the vice versa is also true! Development is predictable: Development follows a universal pattern with generalised sequences. This actually gives way for predictions. All children follow a similar developmental pattern in which one stage leads to the next. For example, infants stand before they walk; initially children draw a circle without much effort, later they will learn to put the specific strokes. Such behavioural pattern never gets reversed. This is an irreversible process. And also the general pattern does not get altered by individual variations. However, children who are born prematurely may lag behind in development for about a year, but after that they usually catch up with the normal pattern almost at the same rate. It is generalised, like, very bright and very dull children likewise follow the same developmental sequence as those of average intelligence. However, those who are very bright develop at a more rapid rate than those who are average, while very dull children develop at a slower rate. Development involves changes: Human being is never static. From the moment of conception to the time of death, the person will be undergoing changes. According to Piaget, “a maturi

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