Study Guide: Biology - Life & Process of Science, Chemistry & Macromolecules - PDF

Chapter 1: Life & Process of Science ​ Describe why knowledge of science and scientific literacy is both relevant and important.​ ○​ Use it to think creatively about real-world issues that have a scientific component. ○​ Integrate these ideas into your decision making....

Chapter 1: Life & Process of Science ​ Describe why knowledge of science and scientific literacy is both relevant and important.​ ○​ Use it to think creatively about real-world issues that have a scientific component. ○​ Integrate these ideas into your decision making. ​ ​ Define "Biology": scientific study of life​ ​ List and describe the characteristics of life. ○​ Cells ​ smallest unit of life that can function independently and perform all necessary functions of life, including reproducing itself ​ ​ all living things made of cells ○​ DNA: cells use DNA as the chemical material of genes ○​ Energy: cells require energy and source of building materials (matter) for growth, maintenance and repair ○​ Order: living things create/maintain order ○​ Regulation ○​ Growth/Development ○​ Respond to environment: ex- fight or flight ○​ Reproduction ○​ Evolution ​ List/explain the steps in the scientific method.​ ○​ Step 1: Make observation ○​ Step 2: Hypothesis ○​ Step 3: Prediction ○​ Step 4: Conduct Experiment ○​ Step 5: Conclusion ​ Explain what a control group is: Control group doesn't get treatment in experiment; baseline to compare data from experiment to ​ Explain what we mean by replication in experimental design.​ ○​ must have more than 1 subject in both control & experimental groups ​ Define the term "scientific theory" and contrast it with the term "hypothesis"​ ○​ comprehensive idea that's supported by an extensive and varied evidence; broader than hypothesis & supported by scientific reasoning ​ Identify the independent and dependent variables in a hypothesis.​ ​ Interpret graphical data from a simple experiment.​ Chapters 2,3: Chemistry & Macromolecules ​ Define matter: anything that occupies space/has mass; solid, liquid, gas​ ​ Describe what elements comprise life and the human body.​ 4.​ carbon 5.​ hydrogen 6.​ Oxygen-- makes up the most of your body 7.​ nitrogen ​ Describe the parts of an atom (what and where and how many?).​ ○​ Protons: part of atomic nucleus; have (+) charge Neutrons: also part of nucleus; they are neutral Electrons: have (-) charge; circle the nucleus in shells at different distances and energy level ​ 1st shell of atom holds 2 electrons; 2nd shell can hold up to 8 Describe how the behavior of electrons determines atomic behavior. ​ most stable when its outer shell is full ​ if outer shell is not full, atoms will form bonds with other atoms in order to fill it Define an element and determine its atomic weight and atomic number. ​ Atomic #: # of protons found in atom's nucleus; top left of atomic symbol ​ Atomic mass: # of protons + # of neutrons; bottom middle of atomic symbol Define a compound: when molecule contains 1+ different type of atoms Differentiate between atoms, ions, elements, molecules, and compounds. ​ atom: smallest unit of matter that still retains properties of an element ​ ion: Charged atom ​ molecule: made up of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds ​ compound: when molecule contains 1+ different type of atoms ​ element: substance that cannot be broken down chemically into any other substance Differentiate between covalent and ionic bonds in terms of strength and the interaction of electrons. ​ ionic bond: When atom loses or gains electrons, becomes charged ○​ attraction between the opposite charges holds ions together and fills outer shell  ○​ weakest bond; slightly positive ion attracts to slightly negative ion ​ covalent bond: when 2 atoms share 1+ pairs of outer-shell electrons; fills outer shell ○​ 2 types: Polar & Non Polar ○​ strongest bond; SHARES electrons Explain the difference between a polar covalent bond and a nonpolar covalent bond.​ ​ Polar: share the electrons unequally; 1 atom pulls electrons toward its end ​ Nonpolar: share the electrons equally (O=O) Explain how a hydrogen bond is formed.​ ​ When water (H) molecules get near each other, oppositely charged regions attract each other ○​ give structure to liquid ○​ stabilize nucleic acids Describe the unique characteristics of water (we talked about 4) and explain how they are influenced by hydrogen bonds.​ ​ Cohesion: water molecules "stick" together as a result of hydrogen bonding; H molecule evaporates, pulls extra water up through tree because of "stickiness" from hydrogen bond ○​ H2O Transport in plants ○​ Surface Tension of bodies of water ​ ​ ​ High Heat Capacity: Because of hydrogen bonding, water can resist temperature change & absorb/store large amounts of heat ​ Low density as solid: water changes from liquid to solid, H bonds push molecules farther apart, lowering density Good Solvent: can dissolve polar and ionic compounds​ ​ Solution: liquid consisting of 2+ mixed substances ​ Dissolving agent: the solvent ​ Dissolved substance: the solute Describe what happens when an acid or a base is added to water.​ ​ Acid: H+ > OH- ions; H+ very reactive  ​ Base: OH- > H+ ions; OH- bind to H+; neutralizing acids Explain what a buffer is why it is important.​ ​ quickly absorb excess H+ ions to prevent max acidity ​ quickly release H+ ions to prevent max basicness Define pH, explain the range of the pH scale and tell which values indicate acid and which values indicate base.​ ​ describes how acidic/basic solution is ​ based on the concentration of H+ ions ​ Ranges from 0 (highest H+ concentration = most acidic) to 14 (lowest H+ concentration = most basic) ​ ​ pH of 7 is neutral; H+ = OH- Give the structure, biological purpose, and examples of each macromolecule we discussed (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids).​ ​ Carbohydrates: ○​ Structure: composed of monosaccharides (simple sugars); ○​ Purpose: Fuel for cells, glycogen for temp storage, fat for long-term energy storage ○​ Ex: Starch (energy storage in plants) ​ Lipids: ○​ Structure: Contain more C-H bonds than carbs ○​ Purpose: provide more stored energy than carbs ○​ Ex: Triglyceride- fat made of glycerol & 3 fatty acids ​ Proteins:​ ❖​ Structure: made of amino acids; primary (letter sequence), secondary (corkscrew), tertiary (3D), quaternary ❖​ Purpose: body structure, health protection, regulate cells, contract muscles, transport oxygen to body ❖​ Ex: Enzymes- proteins that speed up chemical reactions Nucleic Acids:​  ​ Structure: made of nucleotides, info stored in a molecule of DNA is determined by its sequence of base (C,G,T, A) ​ Purpose: carry genetic info; direct production of proteins ​ Ex: DNA/RNA Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.​ ​ Saturated (SSS- Single, Straight, Solid): contains no C=C double bonds, straight/tightly packed chain, solid at room temp ​ Unsaturated: opposite, has 1 C=C bond, loose, liquid at room temp Explain why protein structure is important.​ ​ If structure isn't folded in correct shape, won't work ​ minor changes to structure can cause malfunctions Explain denaturation; What is it and what can cause it?​ ​ Unfavorable temp and pH changes can cause protein to lose its shape and function Explain what enzymes are and what they do. ​ proteins that speed up chemical reactions ○​ use Activation energy: Chemical reactions in organisms need a little "push" to initiate reaction Chapter 4: Cells ​ Using the term resolution, explain how we can visualize cells that are too small to see with the naked eye.​ ○​ We use a microscope to find the resolution, which is the minimum distance between 2 points that allows our eye to still distinguish them as separate; the higher the resolution, the clearer the image. ○​ ​ List the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.​ ○​ Prokaryotic: ​ Smaller ​ No membranous organelles or nucleus ​ Includes bacteria and archaea ​ First cells on earth ​ Metabolically diverse  ​ 4 basic structural features ​ plasma membrane: outer covering that separates cell's interior from surrounding environment. ​ cytoplasm ​ DNA: the genetic material of the cell ​ ribosomes ○​ Eukaryotic: ​ bigger ​ Have membranous organelles and nucleus ​ Physical separation of compartments​ ​ Different chemical reactions can occur at same time​ ​ Identify the major differences between plant and animal cells.​ ​ ​ Animal: ○​ Has many vacuoles ○​ Doesn't contain chloroplast ○​ Doesn't have cell wall ​ Plant: ○​ Has 1 vacuole ○​ Contains chloroplast ○​ Has cell wall Explain phospholipid structure and its importance in forming the plasma membrane (what's water got to do with it??).​ ​ two regions: head (polar/hydrophilic) and tail (opposite) ​ form bilayers of cell when placed in water; head= outside membrane, tail= inside membrane protected from water Label a plasma membrane and describe the function of each component (there are 4). ​ composition: ​ phospholipids: form cell bilayers when placed in water 2.​ proteins: ​ fingerprint for identification by other cells ​ helps membrane's flexibility ​ bind to external chemicals ​ give passageway for other cells to pass through ​ accelerate interactions on membrane 3.​ carbohydrates: cell recognition markers; name tags-- same functions as proteins 4.​ cholesterol: important for membrane fluidity (prevents from being too fluid at moderate temps & too rigid at low temps) Explain the functions of the plasma membrane.​ ​ Separates living cell from nonliving surroundings ​ Provides barrier ​ Allows certain molecules to pass through ​ Allows interactions with environment/neighboring cells Compare movement of materials across the plasma membrane by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and active transport. ​ Simple diffusion: molecules move from area w/ high concentration to area w/ low so they can spread and pass freely ​ Facilitated diffusion: still move to area w/ low concentration, but need help from transport protein which acts specifically ​ ​ Osmosis: water diffuses from high concentrated area to low; move to equalize concentration of water inside/out of cell ○​ always diffuse toward hypertonic (more solutes, less water) ○​ if fluid hypertonic (concentration outside cell > in)--- cell loses water ○​ If fluid hypotonic (concentration outside cell < in)-- cell gains water ​ Active transport: molecules can't move up the membrane w/o energy input from transport proteins What molecules can freely pass through the plasma membrane? Why?​ ​ O2 and CO2 because of small size and neutral charge ​ Nonpolar molecules because membrane interior is also nonpolar Explain the differences between hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic solutions and predict the movement of water in or out of a cell in 1 each case. ​ Isotonic solution: solute concentration outside cell = concentration inside cell; water movement out = water movement in ​ Hypotonic solution: solute concentration outside cell < concentration inside cell; water moves into cell ​ Hypertonic solution: solute concentration outside cell > concentration inside cell; water moves outside cell Describe the function and structural features of each of the organelles that we discussed.​ ​ Nucleus: stores hereditary info & info needed to create proteins  ○​ contains chromatin (DNA associated with proteins) & nucleolus (stores ribosomes which makes protein from RNA attaching to it) ​ Ribosomes: protein factories; found throughout cytoplasm, bound to endoplasmic reticulum ​ Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Assembly Line; folds/packages proteins, studded with ribosomes that produce proteins Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: assembly line; Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies waste molecules​ Golgi Apparatus: post office; processes/packages proteins, lipids, & molecules and runs carbohydrate synthesis​ Lysosomes: garbage disposal; uses sacs that contain enzymes to digest/recycle cell waste​ Mitochondria: powerhouse; does cell respiration, convert energy from food into chemical (ATP)​ Cytoskeleton: movers/shapers​ ​ gives cell shape/support & movement ​ transport organelles/vesicles, cell contents/chromosomes ​ heals wounds ​ move past cells using cilia (short structures that beat to move) & flagella (long structures) Cell Wall: Protective Barrier; gives structure/protection, prevents water loss, not present in animal cells​ Vacuoles: Storage Sacs for nutrients; breaks down waste, deters predators, sex reproduction, & physical support​ Chloroplasts: Photosynthesizers; perform photosynthesis by converting light energy to chemical glucose, only found in plant cells​ Explain the theory of endosymbiosis. How does it differ from invagination?​ ​ 2 types of organelles in eukaryotes: Chloroplast (in plants/algae) & Mitochondria (in plants/animals), 2 diff types of prokaryotes worked in close & 1 eventually engulfed the other ​ endosymbiosis explains origin of mitochondria/chloroplasts inside eukaryotic cells, while invagination explains origin of nucleus and other organelles through formation of invagination