Biological Psychology PDF

Biological Pyschology regulates the change from inspiration to expiration. Brain ​ Cerebellum - A large, convoluted...

Biological Pyschology regulates the change from inspiration to expiration. Brain ​ Cerebellum - A large, convoluted structure on the brain stem’s dorsal surface. It is an important sensorimotor structure: cerebellar damage eliminates the ability to precisely control one’s movements and to adapt them to changing conditions. Mesencephalon ​ Tectum or corpora quadrigemina - The ceiling of the midbrain which is composed of the inferior colliculi Myelencephalon which has an auditory function, and ​ Also known as the medulla the superior colliculi, which have a oblongata, which is the most visual function posterior division of the brain ​ Tegmentum - The floor of the ​ It is mainly composed of tracts midbrain which is composed of the carrying signals between the rest of periaqueductal gray (for pain and the brain and the body. defensive behavior), substantia nigra ​ Reticular formation - A complex (for reward, addiction, and network of about 100 nuclei that movement), and red nucleus (for occupies the central core of the motor coordination) brain stem from the posterior Diencephalon boundary of the myelencephalon to ​ It comprises five distinct areas: the the anterior boundary of the thalamus, subthalamus, midbrain hypothalamus, epithalamus, and ​ The reticular formation is also pituitary gland. referred to as the reticular activating ​ Thalamus - Large two-lobed system because part of it plays a structure that acts as the last relay role in arousal; center for sensory and motor signals ​ This is also involved in various before they go to the cerebral cortex. functions such as sleep, attention, It also has a role in the regulation of movement, maintenance of muscle sleep, consciousness, and alertness. tone, and various cardiac, ​ Subthalamus - A small lens-shaped circulatory, and respiratory reflexes. nucleus in the forebrain that acts as Metencephalon a pacemaker for the basal ganglia ​ Pons - Serves as a bridge that ​ Hypothalamus - An almond-sized connects the two hemispheres at the structure in the forebrain that plays hindbrain level. It holds the an important role in the regulation of pneumatic center, a nucleus that emotions and motivated behavior  ​ Epithalamus - Acts as a connector and maintenance of cognitive and between the limbic system and the attentional other parts of the brain ​ Cingulate cortex - Has autonomic ​ Pituitary gland - A pea-sized functions such as regulating heart structure in the brain which regulates rate, blood pressure, and cognitive, homeostasis and attentional processing Telencephalon ​ Mamillary Body - Involved in the ​ The largest division of the human formation of memory brain and it mediates its most ​ Basal ganglia - A group of nuclei complex functions that is mainly responsible for ​ It initiates voluntary movement, voluntary motor control, procedural interprets sensory input, and learning, and even cognitive and mediates complex cognitive emotional functions processes such as learning, Parts of the Basal Ganglia: speaking, and problem-solving ​ Caudate nucleus - involved in ​ Its main divisions are the cerebral learning memory cortex, limbic system, and basal ​ Putamen - Regulates movement ganglia and influences various types of ​ The cerebrum or Cerebral cortex - learning A layer of convoluted tissue that ​ Striatum - Responsible for planning covers the cerebral hemispheres and modulation of movement Four lobes of the cerebral cortex: ​ Globus pallidus - For regulation of ​ Frontal - Mainly responsible for the voluntary and subconscious executive functions of the brain movement ​ Parietal - Responsible for visuospatial processing manipulation Five Divisions of the Adult Brain of objects and integration of sensory information from different parts of the body ​ Temporal - Responsible for auditory perception and processing of semantics in both speech and vision ​ Occipital - Visual processing of the brain ​ Limbic System - A circuit of midline structures that circle the thalamus and is responsible for the regulation of motivated behaviors Parts of the Limbic System: ​ Amygdala - Almond-shaped Meninges nucleus that is responsible for ​ Meninges - These are three emotional associations protective membranes that encase ​ Hippocampus - Responsible for the the brain and the spinal cord formation of long-term memories  ​ Dura mater - The tough outer Meningioma membrane ​ The meninges can develop tumors, ​ Arachnoid - Located immediately which are called meningiomas; inside the dura mater; a fine these are usually benign tumors, spiderweb-like middle membrane which means they are noncancerous ​ Subarachnoid space - Beneath the and do not metastasize to other arachnoid membrane which contains parts of the body. many blood vessels and ​ Meningiomas grow outside of the cerebrospinal fluid; brain, but they can put pressure on ​ Pia mater - The delicate innermost brain tissue as the tumor grows membrane which adheres to the inside the skull. surface of the CNS ​ Common symptoms of meningiomas are headaches, vision problems, and muscle weakness or paralysis. Meninges Layers Depending on where the meningioma occurs and which parts are under pressure from the tumor, patients with meningiomas may also display other symptoms. ​ The most common treatments for meningiomas are surgery and radiotherapy Hematomas and hemorrhages ​ A result of hemorrhage is collections of blood that pool outside of blood Meningitis vessels ​ Is an infection of the meninges by There are three types of meningeal bacteria or viruses hematomas: ​ Viral meningitis is more common ​ Epidural hematoma - Occurs from and less severe and may cause tearing of the meningeal artery; headaches, fatigue, and depression blood pools between the dura mater ​ Bacterial meningitis is less common and the skull and more severe and is potentially ​ Subdural hematomas - Arise from fatal accumulation of blood between the ​ Meningitis is diagnosed by spinal arachnoid and dura mater layers tap, which helps doctors look for ​ Subarachnoid hematomas - infection within the spinal fluid; by Occurs when blood accumulates body and brain imaging; or by blood between the arachnoid layer and pia test mater ​ Once diagnosed, bacterial ​ Hematomas may be treated by meningitis is treated with antibiotics, removing blood or blood clots to and viral meningitis is treated with relieve pressure within the skull medication to ease the symptoms of the disease  Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) ​ The CSF supports and cushions the brain. ​ Patients who have had their CSH drained away often suffer raging headaches and experience stabbing pain each time they jerk their heads ​ It's continuously produced by the choroid plexuses - networks of small blood vessels that protrude Biological Research into the ventricles from their pia ​ EEG (electroencephalogram) - mater lining This is an amplified tracing of the ​ Hydrocephalus (water head) - activity of a region of the brain Build-up CSF in the ventricles, produced when electrodes thereby causing the walls of the positioned in direct contact with the ventricles and the brain to expand; is scalp transmit signals about the treated by draining the excess fluid brain’s electrical activity (“brain and trying to remove the obstruction waves”) to an electroencephalograph machine Hydrocephalus Lecture 3: Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission Parkinson’s Disease Symptoms “Reptilian stare” - lack of blinking and widely opened eyes gazing out of a motionless face. ​ Substancia Nigra - small group of nerve cells (black substance) were unaccountably dying. These neurons make a particular chemical called dopamine, Blood-Brain Barrier which is delivered to the striatum. ​ Striatum - part of the basal ganglia, ​ A protective layer that lines the inner responsible for planning and modulation of surfaces of the blood vessels inside movement. your brain. It's a key. ​ Basal Ganglia - one of the divisions of Telencephalon or the largest division of Blood Brain Barrier Image the human brain and it mediates its most complex functions. ​ Damaged Striatum - when dopamine is lessened or can not be produced. As the cells of the Substantia Nigra die, ​ Glutamate - Most prevalent the amount of dopamine they deliver goes excitatory neurotransmitter in the down. CNS ​ GABA - Synthesized from glutamate. The most prevalent Synaptic Transmission inhibitory NT in the CNS ​ A. Axodendritic synapse – ​ Aspartate and glycin connection of the axon terminal Monoamine buttons on the dendrites of another ​ Dopamine - Mainly responsible for neuron. reward-driven learning. It also plays ​ B. Axosomatic synapse – a role in cognition, mood, and connection of the axon terminal motivated behavior. buttons on the soma of another ​ Dopamine problems implicated in neuron. AHDH, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, ​ C. Dendrodendritic synapse – Depression, Bipolar disorders, Binge connection of the dendrites on the eating, addiction, gambling, and dendrites of another neuron; capable schizophrenia of transmission in either direction. ​ Norepinephrine - Released by the ​ D. Axoaxonal synapse – sympathetic neurons. It is involved in connection of the axon on the axon fight-or-flight response, of another neuron; capable of decision-making, mood, attention, mediating presynaptic inhibition and alertness. ​ Epinephrine - Mainly responsible Release of Neurotransmitter (NT) for heightened physiological ​ Molecules Exocytosis - The responses during fight-or-flight process of NT release response ​ Serotonin - Involved in the Reuptake, Enzymatic Degradation, and regulation of mood, appetite, and Recycling sleep and also has cognitive ​ As long as Nt is in the synapse, it is functions like memory and learning “active” - activity must somehow be ​ Dopamine, norepinephrine, and turned off. epinephrine are synthesized from ​ Reuptake - lessened information, the amino acid tyrosine, while from one source to another. serotonin is synthesized from the ​ Enzymatic degradation - what amino acid tryptophan. intervenes, when an enzyme changes the structure of a Acetylcholine neurotransmitter so that it is no ​ It is a neurotransmitter responsible longer recognized by the receptor. for neuromuscular junctions and also plays a role in memory and other Neurotransmitters cognitive functions. ​ It is the only neurotransmitter used Amino Acid Neurotransmitters in the motor (efferent) division of the ​ Usually found at fast-acting directed somatic nervous system. synapses in the CNS  ​ Secretin - A neuropeptide that is Unconventional Neurotransmitters involved in the regulation of body ​ Nitric Oxide (NO) - A signaling energy homeostasis. This molecule that can inhibit smooth neurochemical also has an anorectic muscle contraction and promote effect and has been proposed as a adaptive relaxation and localized treatment for autism. vasodilation. It is also critical for ​ Prolactin - This is a hormone and a penile erection. neurotransmitter that facilitates its ​ Carbon monoxide (CO) - A mild production in the mammary neurotransmitter involved in memory glands. This is also involved in the and learning. It also appears to care of one’s offspring.​ mediate ejaculation. ​ Neurotensin - A neuropeptide that ​ Endocannabinoids - Anandamide induces a variety of effects like is one of the two known analgesia, hypothermia, and Endocannabinoids increased locomotor activity. This is also involved in the regulation of Neuropeptides dopamine pathways. ​ Endorphins - An opioid peptide that can produce analgesia and a feeling Classes of Neurotransmitters of well-being. It is produced by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus – Amino acids: glutamate, glycine, during exercise, excitement, pain, aspartate, GABA consumption of spicy food, love, and – Monoamines: dopamine, epinephrine, orgasm. norepinephrine, serotonin ​ Substance P - Associated with – Soluble gases: nitric oxide, carbon increasing food intake, storage of fat monoxide as energy, reducing anxiety and – Acetylcholine: neuromuscular junctions stress, reducing pain perception, – Neuropeptides: endorphins, substance and affecting circadian rhythm P, neuropeptide Y ​ Corticotropin - A neuropeptide that directs the body’s response to many forms of stress. This Seven Steps in Neurotransmitter neurotransmitter can suppress Action appetite, increase subjective feelings of anxiety, and boost attention. ​ Oxytocin - A hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a huge role in pair bonding. This is also associated with social recognition and maternal behaviors. ​ Vasopressin - A neuropeptide that plays a big role in social behavior, sexual motivation, bonding, and maternal response to stress  ​ Carry information stored in genes to new cells during reproduction ​ Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in human body cells, 22 pairs are non-sex chromosomes (autosomes), and one pair constitutes the sex chromosomes ​ A female has 22 pairs of autosomes and two X and sex chromosomes. Thus, normal eggs have 22 autosomes + X. content outline ​ A male has 22 pairs of autosomes and one X and one Y sex chromosome. Thus, normal sperms have 22 autosomes + either X or Y ​ At fertilization, the chromosomes from the egg and sperm recombine to form a zygote (fertilized egg) with 46 chromosomes that will develop into a new individual Evolution and Behavior Evolution and Behavior Chromosomes ​ Just as physical features can contribute to “fitness,” so do behaviors ​ Some are obvious ability to find food, avoid predation, etc Evolution of the Human Brain ​ There is no relationship between brain size and intelligence ​ Brain size is generally correlated with body size ​ More informative to look at the relative size of different brain regions ​ The human brain has increased in size during evolution ​ Most of the increase in size has occurred in the cerebrum ​ Increased convolutions in the cerebrum have served to increase the volume of the cerebral cortex Genetics Chromosomes