PSYC103 Physiological/Biological Psychology PDF

PSYC103 | PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY — 2 PLANES AND SECTION NERVOUS SYSTEM AND BRAIN ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS ​ In humans, the dorsal parts of our brain form a 90-degre...

PSYC103 | PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY — 2 PLANES AND SECTION NERVOUS SYSTEM AND BRAIN ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS ​ In humans, the dorsal parts of our brain form a 90-degree angle with the dorsal parts of the spinal cord. 1.​ Rostral/Anterior 2.​ Caudal/Posterior 3.​ Ventral/Inferior 4.​ Dorsal/Superior 5.​ Midline - an imaginary line dividing the body into two equal 6.​ Ipsilateral - a directional term referring to structures on the same side of the midline. 7.​ Contralateral - A directional term referring to structures on opposite ​ Sagittal Section - parallel to the midline. sides of the midline. ​ Midsagittal Section - a sagittal section 8.​ Medial - toward the midline. that divides the brain into two 9.​ Lateral - away from the midline. approximately equal halves. 10.​Proximal - means closer to center; ​ Coronal Section (Frontal Section) - usually applied to limbs; opposite dividing the brain front to back parallel to of distal the face. ​ Horizontal Section (Axial Section) - divides the brain from top to bottom PROTECTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM MENINGES ​ Layers of membranes that surround and support the nervous system. NACUA, NICHOLE | 1  PSYC103 | PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY — 2 DURA MATER the subarachnoid space that surrounds both the brain and spinal cord. ​ The outermost of the three layers of ​ Within the lining of the ventricles, the meninges, found in both the central and CHOROID PLEXUS converts material peripheral nervous systems. from the nearby blood supply into ARACHNOID MATER cerebrospinal fluid. ​ The middle and more delicate layer of the ​ New CSF is made constantly, with the meninges covering the central nervous entire supply being turned over about system. three times per day. The old CSF is SUBARACHNOID SPACE reabsorbed into the blood supply at the ​ A space filled with cerebrospinal fluid that top of the head. lies between the arachnoid and pia mater layers of the meninges in the central nervous system. PIA MATER ​ The innermost layers of meninges, found COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM: CENTRAL NERVOUS in both the central and peripheral nervous SYSTEM systems. SPINAL CORD CEREBROSPINAL FLUID ​ A special plasma-like fluid circulating within the ventricles of the brain, the central canal of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space. ​ CSF circulates through the central canal of the spinal cord and four ventricles in the brain: the two lateral ventricles, one in each hemisphere, and the third and fourth ventricles in the brainstem (the fourth ventricle is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord). ​ Below the fourth ventricle, there is a small opening that allows the CSF to flow into NACUA, NICHOLE | 2  PSYC103 | PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY — 2 (voluntary movement or involuntary movement called SPINAL REFLEXES). SPINAL REFLEXES ​ Without any input from the brain, the spinal cord neurons are capable of some important reflexes. ​ Damage to the spinal cord results in loss of sensation (of both the skin and internal organs) and loss of voluntary movement in parts of the body served by nerves located below the damaged area. ​ Some spinal reflexes are usually retained. PLANTAR REFLEX ​ A long cylinder of nervous tissue ​ The knee-jerk reflex; a spinal reflex in extending from the medulla to the first which tapping below the knee produces a lumbar vertebra. reflexive contraction of the quadriceps ​ Running down the center of the spinal muscle of the thigh, causing the foot to cord is the CENTRAL CANAL. kick. ​ The spinal cord is divided into cervical, WITHDRAWAL REFLEX thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal ​ A spinal reflex that pulls a body part away segments. from a source of pain, which protects the ​ The spinal nerves exit either side of the individual from injury. cord between the surrounding bony vertebrae. SACRAL NERVES POSTURAL REFLEX ​ Have five spinal nerves that serve the ​ Allows one to shift weight automatically backs of the legs and the genitals. from one leg to the other making standing COCCYGEAL NERVE and walking possible. ​ Has only one pair of spinal nerves WHITE MATTER ​ Made up of axons that are responsible for carrying information to and from the brain. ​ The axons from sensory neurons travel up the dorsal parts of the spinal cord. ​ On the other hand, the axons from motor neurons travel in the ventral parts of the cord. GRAY MATTER ​ Consists of areas primarily made up of cell bodies. ​ The neurons found in the dorsal horns of the H-shaped gray matter receive sensory input, whereas the neurons in the ventral horns of the H-shaped gray matter pass motor information to the muscles NACUA, NICHOLE | 3  PSYC103 | PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY — 2 ​ Role in coordinating voluntary movements, maintaining muscle tone, and regulating balance. ​ Input from the spinal cord tells the cerebellum about the current location of the body in three-dimensional space. ​ Input from the cerebral cortex, by way of the pons, tells the cerebellum about the movements you intend to make. ​ Then, processes the sequences and timing of muscle movements required to carry out the plan. ​ Cerebellum is involved in some of our more sophisticated processing of DIVISION OF THE BRAIN: HINDBRAIN information. MYELENCEPHALON ​ Example: Patients with cerebellar damage ​ The gradual swelling of tissue above the also experience subtle deficits in cognition cervical spinal cord marks the most caudal and perception. portion of the brain, the ​ Although neuroscientists do not agree on MYELENCEPHALON OR MEDULLA, its exact function, most theories propose a which contains large quantities of white cerebellum that can use past experience matter; the majority of all information to make corrections and automate passing to and from higher structures of behaviors, whether they involve motor the brain must still pass through it. systems or not. ​ The myelencephalon is also called the DIVISION OF THE BRAIN: MIDBRAIN medulla oblongata, which is the lower portion of the brainstem. ​ It is responsible for autonomic functions like regulating breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. METENCEPHALON ​ Metencephalon contains two major structures, the pons and the cerebellum. PONS ​ Rostral/anterior to the medulla ​ Form connections between the medulla and higher brain centers as well as with the cerebellum. ​ Acts as a communication bridge between ​ Has a dorsal or top half known as the the brain and spinal cord. tectum, or "roof," and a ventral, or ​ It helps regulate breathing, sleep, and bottom half, known as the tegmentum, or arousal, coordinates motor control and "covering." balance via the cerebellum, and houses ​ These structures are separated by the cranial nerves for facial movement, cerebral aqueduct, which also links the sensation, and hearing third and fourth ventricles. CEREBELLUM PERIAQUEDUCTAL GRAY ​ Surrounding the cerebral aqueduct; plays an important role in the perception of pain. NACUA, NICHOLE | 4  PSYC103 | PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY — 2 RED NUCLEUS nervous system. ​ Located within the reticular formation, BASAL GANGLIA communicates motor information between ​ A collection of nuclei within the cerebral the spinal cord and the cerebellum. hemispheres that participate in the control SUBSTANTIA NIGRA of movement. ​ Hence, degeneration of it occurs in ​ Communicates with the basal ganglia of Parkinson's disease and Huntington's the forebrain; its degeneration occurs disease. in Parkinson's disease. ​ It includes different structures: the caudate SUPERIOR COLLICULI nucleus, the putamen, the globus pallidus, ​ Receives input from the optic nerves and the subthalamic nucleus. leaving the eye. LIMBIC SYSTEM ​ However, they are only responsible for ​ A group of brain structures involved in visually guided movements, instead of emotions, memory, and behavior. telling what a person is seeing. ​ They are also involved in visual reflexes 1 HIPPOCAMPUS such as the adjustment of the pupils. ​ Curves around within the cerebral INFERIOR COLLICULI hemispheres from close to the midline out ​ Involved with hearing and auditory to the tip of the temporal lobe. reflexes like turning the head in the ​ Its primary function is related to learning direction of a loud noise. and memory, wherein damage to this structure in both hemispheres produces DIVISION OF THE BRAIN: FOREBRAIN a syndrome known as ANTEROGRADE ​ Contains the most advanced and most AMNESIA, or difficulty forming new long recently evolved structures of the brain. term declarative memories, which are ​ It divides into the diencephalon which memories for facts, language, and contains the thalamus and hypothalamus personal experience. and the telencephalon which includes the 2 AMYGDALA cerebral hemispheres. DIENCEPHALON ​ Has important roles in fear, rage, and aggression ​ Part of the forebrain located between the ​ In addition, the amygdala interacts with cerebrum and the brainstem. It includes the hippocampus during the encoding and the following structures: storage of emotional memories THALAMUS ​ Damage to the amygdala specifically ​ Relays sensory and motor signals to the interferes with an organism's ability to cerebral cortex and regulates respond appropriately to dangerous consciousness, sleep, and alertness. situations. HYPOTHALAMUS ​ Damaged Amygdala in very rare cases, ​ Controls autonomic functions, hormone abnormalities of the amygdala are production (via the pituitary gland), body correlated with uncharacteristic, totally temperature, hunger, thirst, and circadian irrational violence. rhythms. ​ CHARLES WHITMAN, who led a ​ Major regulatory center for such behaviors previously unremarkable life, killed several as eating, drinking, sex, biorhythms, and family members and then climbed a clock temperature control. tower at the University of Texas, Austin in ​ The hypothalamus connects to the 1966. pituitary gland to regulate hormone ​ He methodically opened fire on the people release and controls the autonomic below, killing 15 and injuring 31. Whitman, NACUA, NICHOLE | 5  PSYC103 | PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY — 2 who was killed by police, was later found physical survival and navigating complex to have a tumor pressing on his amygdala. human social interactions. 3 CINGULATE CORTEX POSTERIOR CINGULATE CORTEX ​ Has a variety of functions, movements, spatial orientation, and memory which is also one of the first structures in the brain to be affected by Alzheimer's disease. 4 CEREBRAL CORTEX ​ A thin layer of gray matter that varies from 1.5 mm to 4 mm in thickness in different parts of the brain. ​ Below the thin layers of cortical cell bodies are vast fiber pathways that connect the cortex with the rest of the nervous system ​ A fold of cortical tissue on the inner surface of the cerebral hemispheres. ​ It consists of a recently evolved class of nerve cells only found in great apes and humans and might, therefore, have considerable significance for the recent evolution of intelligent behavior. ANTERIOR CINGULATE CORTEX ​ It has some influence over autonomic ​ The hills of the cortex are referred to as functions, and more importantly in gyri (plural of gyrus), and the valleys are decision-making, error detection, emotion, known as sulci (plural of sulcus). the anticipation of reward, and empathy. ​ A particularly large sulcus is usually called ​ It is also related to both physical and a fissure. social pain. ​ The convolution provides more surface ​ Research by Eisenberger et al. (2003) area for cortical cells despite the limited found that when people feel socially space within the skull. excluded (e.g., left out of a group), the FRONTAL LOBE the same brain regions involved in ​ The most rostral lobe of the processing physical pain—specifically the cerebral cortex, separated from the cingulate cortex—are activated. parietal lobe by the central sulcus and ​ This suggests that the brain uses from the temporal lobe by the lateral overlapping mechanisms to process both sulcus. types of pain. PARIETAL LOBE ​ From an evolutionary perspective, this ​ Located between the frontal and occipital overlap may have developed because lobes. social bonds were critical for survival in TEMPORAL LOBE early human communities. ​ The lobe of the cerebral lying ventral and ​ Experiencing social pain (such as lateral to the frontal and parietal lobes and exclusion) could serve as a warning to rostral to the occipital lobe. maintain social connections, similar to how OCCIPITAL LOBE physical pain alerts us to potential harm to ​ The most caudal lobe of the cortex; the body. location of primary visual cortex. ​ This dual role of the pain system 5 SENSORY CORTEX underscores its importance in both NACUA, NICHOLE | 6  PSYC103 | PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY — 2 ​ A small bundle of axons that connects structures in the right and left cerebral hemispheres. PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM: PERIPHERAL ​ Located in the postcentral gyrus of the NERVOUS SYSTEM parietal lobe. ​ The highest level of processing for SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM information about touch, pain, position, CRANIAL NERVES and temperature. ​ Twelve pairs of nerves that exit the brain 6 MOTOR CORTEX as part of the peripheral nervous system. FIVE CRANIAL NERVES THAT CARRY ONLY MOTOR INFORMATION. OCULOMOTOR NERVE (III), TROCHLEAR NERVE 1 (IV), ABDUCENS NERVE (VI) PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX ​ Control muscles of the eye ​ Located in the precentral gyrus of the 2 SPINAL ACCESSORY NERVE (XI) frontal lobe, which provides the highest ​ Controls the muscle of the neck level of command for voluntary 3 HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE (XII) movements. ASSOCIATION CORTEX ​ Responsible for movement of the tongue ​ The areas for connecting and integrating THREE CRANIAL NERVES THAT CARRY ONLY sensory and motor functions. SENSORY INFORMATION. CORPUS CALLOSUM 1 OLFACTORY NERVE (I) ​ A wide band of axons connecting the right ​ Carrying information about smell to the and left cerebral hemispheres. brain ANTERIOR COMMISSURE 2 OPTIC NERVE (II) NACUA, NICHOLE | 7  PSYC103 | PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY — 2 ​ Carrying information from the eyes to the SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM brain ​ The system that coordinates arousal; it 3 AUDITORY NERVE (VIII) prepares the body for action. ​ Carries information from the inner ear to ​ In other words, the fight-or-flight system. the brain ​ The sympathetic nervous system prepares THE CRANIAL NERVES THAT HAVE MIXED the body for fighting or fleeing by shutting SENSORY AND MOTOR FUNCTIONS. down low-priority systems (digestion is put on standby) and putting blood and oxygen 1 TRIGEMINAL NERVE (V) into the most necessary parts of the body ​ Controls chewing movements and (increased blood flow to the brain). provides feedback regarding facial ​ The sympathetic nervous system is expression. configured for a simultaneous, 2 FACIAL NERVE (VII) coordinated response to emergencies. ​ Produces muscle movement in facial SYMPATHETIC (TRUNK) CHAIN expressions and that carries taste ​ A string of cell bodies outside the spinal information back to the brain. cord that receives input from sympathetic neurons in the central nervous system and 3 GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL NERVE (IX) that communicate with target organs. ​ Manages both sensory and motor ​ Because the messages from the spinal functions in the throat. neurons reach the sympathetic chain 4 VAGUS NERVE (X) through fibers of equal length, they arrive ​ Serves the heart, liver, and digestive tract. at about the same time. ​ Consequently, input from the sympathetic SPINAL NERVES (MIXED NERVES) chain arrives at all of the target organs ​ Spinal nerves that carry both sensory simultaneously. (afferent nerve) and motor (efferent nerve) ​ The sympathetic trunk is formed of the information. sympathetic ganglia and the MEDULLA (MEDULLA OBLONGATA) communications between them. ​ The enlarged extension of the spinal cord; ​ It is present in the thorax and extends up the head, and the organs connect to the to the neck and down to the abdomen and medulla and adjacent areas by 12 pairs of pelvis. cranial nerves (ie., control vital reflexes ​ The thoracic part contains 12 ganglia such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, (sometimes 11 due to fusion of ganglia 11 salivation, coughing, and sneezing). and 12). ​ The first thoracic ganglion may be fused AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM with the inferior cervical one to (75% - ​ Manages many vital functions without 80% of people) form the Stellate ganglion. conscious effort or awareness. ​ Sites: the ganglia are present posteriorly ​ Example: blood circulation, secretion, in the thorax, close to the heads of the ribs digestion, urination, and defecation. or at the sides of vertebral bodies. ​ Also, some reflexive behaviors are coming PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM out with the assistance of autonomic neurons: respiration, pupil dilation, ​ The division of the autonomic nervous sneezing, coughing, swallowing, vomiting, system responsible for rest and energy and genital responses storage. ​ The brain structure that plays the greatest ​ During times of sympathetic nervous role in managing the autonomic nervous system activity, the body is expending system is the HYPOTHALAMUS. energy, meanwhile, the parasympathetic NACUA, NICHOLE | 8  PSYC103 | PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY — 2 nervous system provides rest, repair, and energy storage. ​ Whereas the neurons for the sympathetic nervous systems are found in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, the neurons for the parasympathetic nervous system are found above and below these regions. ​ Parasympathetic axons do not synapse with a chain, as was the case with sympathetic axons. ​ Instead, they travel some distance to locations near their target organs,where the parasympathetic ganglia are located. ​ They act more independently than the sympathetic ganglia do. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CNS & PNS ​ The tissue of the CNS is encased in bone, but the tissue of the PNS is not. ​ The CNS is covered by three layers of membranes (dura mater arachnoid layer, and pia mater), whereas the PNS is covered by only two (dura mater and pia mater) ​ Damage to the CNS is considered permanent, whereas recovery can occur in the PNS. NACUA, NICHOLE | 9