Memory Notes PDF

Unit 2 Cognition Topic 2.3-2.7 Memory and Forgetting Which one is the actual penny? Can you guess the proverb? Refrain from shedding tears regarding the overturning of a liquid dairy product. Each fleecy-white, rain bearing formation in the sky possesses an edge of shiny metal. Whatever ascend...

Unit 2 Cognition Topic 2.3-2.7 Memory and Forgetting Which one is the actual penny? Can you guess the proverb? Refrain from shedding tears regarding the overturning of a liquid dairy product. Each fleecy-white, rain bearing formation in the sky possesses an edge of shiny metal. Whatever ascends to a given height will of necessity descend back to earth. Grant him one-twelfth of a foot, and he will take 5,280 feet. Individuals who reside in fragile and transparent structures should never use igneous rocks as projectiles. Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon Can’t think of a word… Perhaps can remember the letter it starts with? Or what it sounds like? How could I forget that? Clearly the term is stored in your memory! So What is Memory? Learning that persists over time Information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved Three Key Processes in Memory Encoding: forming a memory code; usually requires attention Storage: maintaining encoded information over time Retrieval: recovering information from memory stores These basic processes help explain the ultimate puzzle: why people forget Three Key Processes in Memory Parallel Processing Computer model is limited; computers tend to process info sequentially, even while alternating between tasks Our brains process many things at the same time (some even unconsciously) This is called parallel processing (also called dual processing) Measuring Retention Recall: retrieving info that is not in your conscious awareness, but that was learned at an earlier time (e.g. fill in the blank test) Recognition: identifying items previously learned (e.g. multiple choice test) Relearning: learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time (e.g. when you study for an exam) Ebbinghaus’s Research More time he spent practicing nonsense syllables, the less time required to relearn it Memory-Forming Process Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s 3 stage model: First record to-be-remembered info as a fleeting sensory memory We then process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal (repeat over and over-maintenance rehearsal) Finally information moved into long-term memory for later retrieval Memory-Forming Process-Updated Working Memory: Short-term memory is not just a “shelf”; it’s an active scratchpad where your brain actively processes information by making sense of new input and linking it with long-term memories Includes visual and auditory rehearsal of new information “Central Executive” focuses our attention and pulls information from LTM to help make sense of new information Working Memory-Baddeley’s Model Prospective Memory Memory for things you plan to do in the future Modified Processing Model of Memory Encoding Memories Effortful vs. Automatic Processing Explicit Memories: facts and experiences we consciously know and declare (declarative memories); we encode these through effortful processing Effortful Processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort Effortful vs. Automatic Processing Implicit Memories: retention of information without our awareness (nondeclarative memories); we encode these through automatic processing Include procedural memory for automatic skills (such as riding a bike) and classically conditioned association among stimuli (fear of dogs as adult based on attack as kid) Automatic Processing: unconscious encoding of info such as space (locating info’s place on a page), time (sequence of events and retracing your steps) and frequency (this is the third time Ms. H has said that…) Sensory Memory Feeds our active working memory Sperling’s experiment Two Types of Sensory Memory Iconic Memory-fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli Echoic Memory-fleeting sensory memory of auditory stimuli (tends to linger for 3-4 seconds) Short-Term Memory Capacity Miller proposed that we can store about 7 pieces of information in short-term memory They have a limited life (without active processing) We can recall about 7 digits, six letters and about 5 words Peterson’s Research Asked to remember a 3 consonant groups Prevented rehearsal by having them count down After 3 seconds, only remembered the letters half the time After 12 seconds seldom recalled them at all Takeaway: Without active processing, short-term memories have a limited life! Effortful Processing Strategies Chunking: organizing information into meaningful units, such as letters, words, and phrases Effortful Processing Strategies Mnemonics: memory techniques that change difficult to remember material into more easily remembered material Effortful Processing Strategies Hierarchies Helps when organizing and processing info Testing Effect An effective way to distribute practice is through REPEATED self-testing Testing does more than access learning and memory…it improves them! “What we recall becomes more recallable” Side note: highlighting and rereading text are both highly ineffective Distributed Practice We retain information better when our encoding is distributed over time Spacing Effect Massed Practice (cramming) can produce speedy short term learning and feelings of confidence BUT Distributed Practice produces better long-term recall Study long enough to master material, further study AT THAT TIME becomes inefficient (better to spend that extra time reviewing later) A day later to remember something 10 days later; month later for 6 months later Spacing is one of psychology's most reliable findings! Levels of Processing Shallow Processing: encoding on a basic level; based on structure or appearance of words Deep Processing: encoding semantically; based on the meaning of words Research shows you would remember the word in question 3 better than the other two LTM: Storing and Retrieving Memories Explicit Memory System Explicit memories are either semantic (facts and general knowledge) or episodic (experienced events) Involve the frontal lobes (working memory processing) and hippocampus Hippocampus is like the “save” button for explicit memories Memory Consolidation Memories do not remain in the hippocampus; they will then move to other parts of the brain for storage This is called memory consolidation SLEEP SUPPORTS MEMORY CONSOLIDATION Study: students who learned material in a study/sleep/restudy condition remembered the material better botha week AND 6 months later than those who studied in the morning and restudied in the evening Implicit Memory System Involve the cerebellum and basal ganglia Joseph LeDoux’s patient Cerebellum: forming and storing implicit memories based on classical conditioning Basal ganglia is involved in motor movement (like riding a bike) The Amygdala, Emotions and Memory Our emotions trigger stress hormones that influence memory formation Excited? Stressed? Hormones make glucose available to respond Stress hormones also focus memory by provoking the amygdala (“Brain encode this moment for future reference!”) The Amygdala, Emotions and Memory Emotional arousal can sear events into the brain (disregarding irrelevant events) Stronger emotional experiences make for stronger more reliable memories Evolutionary: predict future and alert us to potential dangers Flashbulb memories: clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Synaptic Changes Long Term Potentiation: process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger/more numerous with frequency activation The neurons become more efficient at firing (action potential) and thus need less prompting Provides a neural basis for learning and remembering associations Amnesia Essentially this is memory loss Anterograde amnesia: cannot encode new memories, but can recall events already in memory; can learn new skills, but will not remember learning new skills Evidence that procedural memory is stored elsewhere in the brain (cerebellum?) Retrograde amnesia: Unable to remember information learned before trauma to the brain Constructive Memory “Reconstructed Memory” False details of a real event or a recollection of an event that never occurred Misinformation effect (leading questions that include information/events that never happened) Memory Retrieval Memories are held in storage by a web of associations (all interconnected) Encode the name of person sitting next to you? You associate with other bits of information about surroundings, mood, seating position, etc. These bits of information can serve as retrieval cues The more retrieval cues you have, the better your chance of accessing Best retrieval cues come from associations we form at the time we encode a memory (smells, taste, sights, etc.)information Retrieval Cues: Priming The activation (often unconsciously) of particular associations in memory “Memoryless memory” See a poster of a missing child, you will then unconsciously be primed to interpret an ambiguous adult-child interaction as a possible kidnapping The poster is no longer in your mind, but predisposes your interpretation Retrieval Cues: Context Dependent Memory Putting ourselves back in the context where we experienced something can prime memory retrieval Scuba divers and testing Experiencing something outside of usual setting can be confusing (e.g.see your doctor in the grocery store) Encoding Specificity Principle: the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it Retrieval Cues: State-Dependent Memory What we learn in one state, may be more easily recalled when in that state (if drowsy and suddenly remember something, may not remember again until drowsy; drugs/alcohol affect memory in similar ways Mood Congruent Memory: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood Helps explain why moods persist; when happy, we recall happy events and see the world as a happy place, which prolongs our good mood Retrieval Cues: Serial Position Effect Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges Topic 2.7 Back to Ebbinghaus Time is a significant factor in forgetting! Occurs rapidly after initial learning and then it levels off Retrieval Problems Can be due to: Encoding Failure ○ Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference Inadequate Retrieval (think back to Tip-of-the-Tongue) Interference Retroactive: Learning new information interferes with the recall of older information Interference Proactive: Older information learned earlier interferes with the recall of info learned recently If your route to work changes, you might end up continuing to drive the old route on ‘autopilot’, causing you to frequently have to turn around to get back on track.