Developmental Psychology Notes PDF

Developmental Psychology The study of the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life. Development Sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death. Issues in Development 1. Nature vs. nurture a. Are the patterns of developm...

Developmental Psychology The study of the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life. Development Sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death. Issues in Development 1. Nature vs. nurture a. Are the patterns of development hereditary? Or are they acquired from the environment 2. continuity vs. discontinuity a. Is development affected by the past? 3. Stability vs. change a. Are the changes stable across time? Developmental Research techniques 1. Cross-sectional research a. Compares people of different ages at the same point in time 2. Longitudinal research a. Assess change in the behavior over time Prenatal Development 3 phases: 1. Germinal stage (first 2 wks. After conception) a. Begins when a zygote is created through fertilization b. Placenta begins to form i. Placenta- is a structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother's bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother 2. Embryonic stage (2 wks until the end of the 2nd month) a. Most of the vital organs and bodily systems begin to form in the developing oganism- now called an embryo b. The brain, spine and heart begin to form c. Period of great vulnerability d. Miscarriages often occur during this stage e. Most structural birth defects 3. Fetal stage (2 months through birth) a. Rapid body growth, muscles and bones begin to form; capable of body movements b. Sense of hearing functional by 20-24 weeks c. Final 3 months, brain cells multiply at a rapid rate d. Between 23 to 25 weeks - fetus reaches the threshold of viability- age at which baby can survive in the event of premature birth Environmental Factors in Prenatal development: 1. Nutrition a. Severe maternal malnutrition increases the risk of birth complications and neurological deficits for the newborn. b. Need for a balanced diet that includes essential vitamins and minerals. 2. Stress and emotion  a. Elevated of maternal stress is associated with increased stillbirths, impaired immune response, heightened vulnerability to infectious disease, slowed motor development, below average cognitive development, and social deficits b. Prospective mothers' emotional reactions to stressful events can disrupt the delicate hormonal imbalance that fosters healthy prenatal development 3. Drug use a. All "recreational drugs, sedatives, narcotics, cocaine, methamphetamine, prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs b. Tobacco use- increase the risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, prematurity, and infants' risk for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), attention deficit, hyperactivity, and conduct problems c. Babies can be born addicted to drugs 4. Alcohol consumption a. Fetal alcohol syndrome- a collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy i. Problems: microencephaly (small head); heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity, delayed motor development; intellectual disability b. Moderate drinking- associate with elevated risks for IQ deficits, motor skills, and attention span; increased impulsive, antisocial and delinquent behavior 5. maternal illness a. Placenta cannot screen out all infectious agents b. Measles, rubella (German measles), syphilis, chickenpox, HIV virus that causes AIDS ( transmitted through the placenta, during delivery, or through breastfeeding 6. Environmental toxins a. Air pollution -linked to impairments in cognitive development, increased obesity at age b. Exposure to chemicals used in flame-retardant materials correlates with slower mental and physical development up through age 6 Fetal Origins of Adult Diseases Links between prenatal factors and adults' physical and mental health Events during prenatal development can "program' the fetal brain in ways that influence person's vulnerability to various types of illness later in adulthood Prenatal malnutrition- linked to vulnerability to schizophrenia, which emerge during adolescence or early adulthood Low birth weight- increased risk of heart disease later in adulthood Some aspects of prenatal development linked to bipolar disorders and depression, obesity, diabetes, some types of cancer Physical Development in childhood Reflexes Genetically wired Some persist throughout life (coughing, blinking, yawning) Others disappear when higher brain functions mature and infants develop voluntary control over many behaviors Some reflexes that weaken or disappear by 6 or 7 months of age: a. Grasping b. Sucking c. stepping d. startle Motor and Perceptual skills At birth, the newborn has a gigantic head, relative to the rest of the body. 12 months- infants can sit upright, stand, stoop, climb, and walk 2nd year- growth decelerates but rapid gains occur in such activities as running and climbing Motor skills a function of the interaction between nature and nature Motor and perceptual skills are vitally linked- babies are continually coordinating their movements with information they receive from their senses- to learn how to mauntain their balance, reach for objects in space, and move across various surfaces and terrains The Brain At birth and early infancy, the brain's 100 billion neurons have only minimal connections As infants age from birth to 2 years, the dendrites of the neurons branch out, and the neurons become far more interconnected. Infant's brain is ready and waiting for the experiences that will create the connections. Myelination begins prenatally and continues after birth Dramatic increase in synaptic connections From 3-6 years, most rapid growth takes place in the frontal lobe areas, which are involved in planning and organizing new actions and in maintaining attention to tasks Cognitive Development Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Schema A concept or framework that already exists at a given moment in a person's mind and that organizes information and provides a structure for interpreting it 2 processes that are responsible for how people use their schemas. 1. Assimilation a. Occurs when individuals incorporate new information into existing knowledge b. People assimilate the environment into a schema i. e.g. in a child's mind, some objects can be picked up- keys, etc. 2. Accommodation a. Occurs when individuals adjust their schemas to new information b. People accommodate their schemas to the environment i. e.g. schema of picking up- child realizes that some objects can be picked up with 2 fingers, both hands, some cannot be picked up (hot food, too heavy) c. The schema of "picking up" becomes modified into different schemas that accommodate the realities of different objects Stages of Cognitive Development 1. Sensorimotor stage (birth -2 years old) a. Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (seeing, hearing) with motor (physical) actions b. No concept of object permanence 2. Preoperational stage (2-7 years old) a. Children begin to represent their world with words, images, and drawings b. Symbolic thinking is limited  c. Cannot perform operations (mental representations that are reversible) d. Child's thought is egocentric (inability to distinguish between one's perspective and someone else's perspective e. Intuitive-personal insights or guesses; not logical 3. Concrete Operational stage (7-11 yrs.old) a. Using operations and replacing intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations b. Abstract thinking not yet developed c. Ability to classify or divide things into different sets or subsets and to consider their interrelations i. e.g. family tree 4. Formal operational stage (11-15 yrs.old) a. Continues through the adult years b. Formal operational thought is more abstract, idealistic and logical; can conceive hypothetical possibilities Evaluation of Piaget's theories Piaget opened up a new way of looking at how children's minds develop BUT Some cognitive abilities emerge in some children- object permanence, memory Formal operational thought does not necessarily emerge in adolescence; some later Ignored individual differences Some psychologists believe that children's minds can be best understood by focusing more on their thinking strategies and skills as well as on their speed and efficiency in processing information Culture and education play important roles in children's cognitive development. Sociocultural Theory (Lev Vygotsky) Places emphasis on how cognitive development is fueled by interactions with parents, teachers and older children who can provide invaluable guidance Language acquisition plays a crucial role in cognitive development ○ children acquire most of their culture's cognitive skills and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more experienced member of the society ○ private speech- preschool children talk aloud to themselves as they go about their activities. Children use this to plan their strategies, regulate their actions, and accomplish their goals ○ as children grow older, this private speech is internalized and becomes the normal verbal dialogue that people have with themselves Language serves as the foundation for the youngsters' cognitive processes Socioemotional Development in Childhood Erikson's theory of Socioemotional Development (Erik Erikson, 1902-1994) Proposes 8 psychosocial stages 1. Trust vs. mistrust (1 12 yrs.old) a. Trust is built when the baby's basic needs are met. If needs are not met by responsive and caring caregivers, mistrust results. 2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt (11/2 to 3 y.o.)  a. Children can develop either a positive sense of independence and autonomy or negative feelings of shame and doubt b. Likely to develop a strong sense of independence 3. Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 5 y.o.) a. Children are challenged to develop purposeful behavior to cope with challenges b. When asked to assume more responsibility for themselves, children can develop more responsibility for themselves. c. When allowed to be irresponsible or made to feel anxious, they can develop too much guilt feelings 4. Industry vs. inferiority (6 y.o. until puberty/12 or 13) a. Children can achieve industry by mastering knowledge and intellectual skills; when they do not, they feel inferior b. Sense of competence and productivity Attachment in Infancy Attachment- refers to a strong relationship between 2 people. ○ attachment - the close emotional bond between the infant and the caregiver Theories of attachment 1. Psychoanalytic theory (Freud) a. Child becomes attached to the person who feeds him or her, and thus provides oral satisfaction 2. Contact Comfort theory (Harry Harlow) a. Contact comfort, not feeding, is the crucial element in the attachment process 3. Ethology (Konrad Lorenz) a. Imprinting- tendency of an infant animal to form an attachment to the first moving object it sees b. Importance of a critical period; called a sensitive period in humans. 4. Attachment from a biological perspective (John Bowlby) a. Infants are biologically programmed to emit behavior (smiling, cooing, clinging, etc.) that triggers an affectionate, protective response from adults. b. Adults are programmed by evolutionary forces to be captivated by this behavior and to respond with love, warmth, and protection. c. Adaptive in terms of promoting children's survival Guided patterns of attachment developed by Mary Ainsworth Patterns of attachment: a. secure attachment- children play and explore their environment with their mother present, becomes upset when she leaves, and calms down when she returns b. anxious-ambivalent attachment (resistant attachment)- appear anxious even when their mother is near; protests excessively when mother leaves, but not particularly comforted when she returns c. avoidant attachment- children seek little contact with their mothers and often are not distressed when she leaves. Maternal sensitivity is important; mothers who are sensitive and responsive to their child's needs are more likely to promote secure attachment Infants are active participants in this process- kind of attachment that develops can depend on the nature of the infant's temperament as well as the mother's sensitivity  Quality of attachment relationship can have important consequences for children's subsequent development ○ children develop an internal working model of the dynamics of close relationships that influence their future interactions ○ children with secure attachment tend to become resilient, socially competent toddlers with high self-esteem and more advanced language development Culture and attachment Separation anxiety emerges in children at about 6-8 months and peaks at about 14-18 months in cultures around the world- suggests that attachment is universal However, there are some modest cultural variations in the proportion of infants who fall into the three attachment categories described by Ainsworth ○ The case of US, Germany and Japan Language Development Early course of language development is similar across very different cultures Parents need to promote communication with their children to speed up language acquisition. 18 months of age Receptive vocabulary is larger than their productive vocabulary Fast mapping underlie the rapid growth of vocabulary Process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure. e.g. add words such as tank, board, tape to their vocabularies after only one exposure Vocabulary knowledge is a crucial building block for the development of reading comprehension skills Overextension and underextension Overextension- when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to e.g use of the word 'ball' for anything round Underextension- when a child incorrectly uses a word to a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to e.g. 'doll' to only a specific doll Combining words Telegraphic speech ○ Consists mainly of content words; articles, prepositions, and less critical words are omitted e.g. 'Give doll' instead of 'Please give me the doll' Overregularization ○ Occurs when grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply e.g. "The girl goes home", “ I hitted the ball" The Development of Moral Reasoning Theory of Moral Reasoning (Lawrence Kohlberg) Focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behavior Heinz dilemma Stages: 1. Preconventional stage  a. Think in terms of external authority. Acts are wrong because they are punished, or right because they lead to positive consequences 2. Conventional stage a. See rules as necessary for maintaining order b. Older children accept these rules as their own.- they 'internalize' the rules to win approval from others c. Rues are seen as absolute guidelines that should be followed 3. Postconventional level (adolescence) a. Involves working out a personal code of ethics b. Acceptance of rules is less rigid; moral thinking is more flexible c. Allow the possibility that some may not comply with rules if they conflict with personal ethics Evaluation: Youngsters do move through the stages of moral reasoning as Kohlberg proposed Relations between age and level of moral reasoning are in the predicted directions Critics note that it is not unusual to find that a person shows signs of several adjacent levels of moral reasoning at a particular point in development. Kohlberg's theory reflects an individualistic ideology characteristic of modern Western nations that is, more culture-specific Theory has led to a constricted focus on reasoning about interpersonal conflicts, ignoring other aspects of moral development (emotional reactions, variations in temperament, and cultural background. Haidt (2007,2013) - argues that many moral judgements involve immediate, automatic, emotional reactions to people's behavior ("How dare he!") which he calls moral intuition. After the gut judgements, people turn to reasoning to justify their instant emotional reactions Haidt maintains that moral behavior is much more emotional, intuitive, and irrational than Kohlberg envisioned —----------------------------------------------------------- ADOLESCENCE Bridge between childhood and adulthood Most dynamic areas of development are physical changes and related transitions in emotional and personality development. Physiological changes Growth spurt- rapid growth in height and weight brought on by hormonal changes; starts at about age 9-10 in girls and 10-12 in boys Develop secondary sex characteristics - physical features that distinguish one sex from another but are not essential for reproduction. Puberty - the stage during which sexual functions reach maturity, which marks the start of adolescence. Primary sex characteristics (structures necessary for reproduction) develop In females, puberty is signaled by menarche- first occurrence of menstruation. In males, spermarche – first occurrence of ejaculation- marks puberty timing of puberty varies from one adolescent to another; girls who mature early (early maturers) and boys who mature late (late maturers) seem to experience more subjective distress in the transition to adolescence; this subjective distress may contribute to the elevated prevalence of low self-esteem that can lead to psychological disorders. Neural Development growth of white matter in the brain suggests that neurons are becoming more myelinated leading to an enhanced connectivity in the brain; while decrease of gray matter is thought to reflect synaptic pruning (gradual disappearance of some synapses because these are no longer needed), which plays a key role in the formation of neural networks. increased myelination and decreased pruning are most pronounced in the prefrontal cortex thus, the prefrontal cortex appears to be the last part of the brain to fully mature ( until mid 20’s); prefrontal cortex has been characterized as the “executive control center” that appears crucial to cognitive control and emotional regulation”; immaturity of the prefrontal cortex may account for the tendency of adolescence to engage in risk-taking behavior (reckless driving, drug use, unprotected sex) on the other hand, some research suggest that the role of the prefrontal cortex in adolescent risk-taking behavior may be exaggerated; some studies found that adolescents exhibit heightened sensitivity to various types of rewards (pleasure associated with tasty food, financial payoffs, drug use, thrilling adventures); this sensitivity to rewards is attributed to the early maturation of the subcortical dopamine circuits that mediate the experience of pleasure. Thus, the current thinking is that adolescent risk-taking is fueled by a mismatch in the maturation of subcortical reward centers in relation to the prefrontal areas underlying cognitive control (Mills et al., 2014), In other words, the brain’s early maturing reward system overpowers the late- maturing prefrontal cortex Other factors that contribute to the risky behavior of adolescents: a. peer pressure b. sensitivity to social evaluation Search for Identity Erik Erikson’s 5th stage: psychosocial crisis is identity vs. confusion. Main challenge of adolescence is the struggle to form a clear sense of identity- includes working out a stable concept of oneself as a unique individual and embracing an ideology or system of values that provides a sense of direction. “Who am I?” and “Where am I going in life?” Studies found that identity confusion is associated with increased risk for substance abuse, unprotected sexual activity, anxiety, low self-worth, and eating disorders (Schwartz et al, 2013) James Marcia’s Identity statuses: J. Marcia proposed that the presence or absence of a sense of commitment (to life’s goals and values) and a sense of crisis (active questioning and exploration) can combine to produce 4 identity statuses. Identity diffusion- state of rudderless apathy, no commitment to an ideology Identity foreclosure- a premature commitment to visions, values, and roles- typically those prescribed by parents; associated with conformity and not being very open to new experiences. Identity moratorium- delaying commitment for a while to experiment with alternative ideologies and careers. Identity achievement- arriving at a sense of self and direction after consideration of alternative possibilities; associated with higher self-esteem, conscientiousness, security, achievement motivation, and capacity for intimacy. ○ Some people achieve an identity at later ages than envisioned by Marsha. ADULTHOOD  Start of a transitional stage called Emerging adulthood that begins in the late teenage years until the mid 20’s. During this time people are no longer adolescents but they have not fully taken on the responsibilities of adulthood; they are still engaged in determining who they are and what their life and career paths should be. Emerging adulthood is an age of identity exploration in which individuals are more self-focused and uncertain than they will be later in early adulthood. Demarcations between the periods of emerging adulthood, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood are not very clear. Physical development Early adulthood 18-25 years old; strength is greatest, reflexes are quickest, chances of dying from disease are quite slim. Reproductive capabilities are at their highest level. Around age 25, body becomes slightly less efficient and more susceptible to disease People remain remarkably healthy during the early adulthood stage. Middle adulthood There are changes in the body - weight gain (can be avoided with diet and exercise) Sense organs become less sensitive and reactions to stimuli are slower. Generally, physical declines are minor and often go unnoticeable. The major biological change that occurs for women is the onset of menopause (cessation of menstruation; women are no longer fertile). Menopause is accompanied by a significant reduction in the production of estrogen, a female hormone. Symptoms of menopause (hot flushes, sudden sensations of heat) can be treated by hormone therapy (HT) in which menopausal women take the hormones estrogen and progesterone. But HT poses several dangers such as the risk of breast cancer, blood clots, and coronary heart disease. HT is less appropriate for women after menopause. Women’s reactions to menopause vary across cultures. The more a society values old age, the less difficulty its women have during menopause. Men: changes during this time are more subtle. There are no physiological signals of increasing age that is equivalent to menopause; men remain fertile and capable of fathering children until in the late adulthood. Some gradual physical decline occurs- sperm production decreases. In the same way as that found among women, any psychological difficulties associated with the physiological changes are usually brought about by an aging individual’s inability to meet the exaggerated standards of youthfulness and not by the person’s physical deterioration. Erikson’s view of adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation ○ Key concern is whether one can develop the capacity to share intimacy with others. Generativity vs. self-absorption ○ Acquisition of a genuine concern for the welfare of future generations which results in providing unselfish guidance to younger people. Adulthood is a period of transitions and adjustments. ○ Balancing work and marriage ○ One major source of conflict in new marriages is the negotiation of marital roles in relation to career commitments. ○ The arrival of the first child represents a major transition- disruption of routines that can be emotionally draining. The Aging Years Physiological changes: Thinning hair; graying hair Proportion of body fat increases with age Elderly people feel a quite a bit younger than they actually are- feeling younger than one’s real age is associated with better health and cognitive functioning, and reduced mortality risk Key developmental changes occur in the sense of vision and hearing. The physiological changes brought about by aging tend to decrease functional capabilities, reduce biological resilience in the face of stress, and increase susceptibility to acute and chronic diseases. Good health in old age (“successful aging”) are affected by both physiological factors such as good genes, and psychological factors that seem to have a protective value in diminishing the negative effects of aging. These psychological factors may include higher intelligence, optimism, high self-esteem, and the tendency to experience positive emotions. Behavioral habits e.g. nutritious diets, adequate exercise, avoiding smoking and substance abuse, and regular medical checkups also contribute to decreasing the diminishing effects of aging. Neural Changes Amount of brain tissue and the brain’s weight decline gradually in late adulthood, mostly after age 60; a subject of debate but is not a key factor in any of the age-related dementias. Dementia- an abnormal condition marked by multiple cognitive deficits that include memory impairment; can be caused by Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and AIDS, among others. ○ The prevalence of dementia increases with age. Alzheimer’s disease and senility are not part of the normal aging process. Alzheimer’s disease accounts for roughly 60-80% of all cases of dementia. ○ Accompanied by major structural deterioration in the brain.; Alzheimer patients exhibit profound and widespread loss of neurons and brain tissue, especially in the hippocampus that is known to play a key role in memory. ○ Symptoms include forgetting of newly learned information after brief periods of time, impairment of the working memory, attention, and executive function (planning, staying on the task) ○ Characterized by progressive deterioration for a period of 8-10 years ending in death. ○ Causes of the disease are not well understood. Genetic factors and chronic inflammation are known to contribute but their exact roles are not exactly clear. ○ Regular exercise, lower cardiovascular risk factors (absence of high blood pressure, no history of diabetes and smoking), frequent participation in stimulating cognitive activities and maintenance of active social engagement with friends and family, diminishes people’s vulnerability to the disease. Cognitive Changes in Aging Decline in memory capabilities particularly in semantic memory, although not everyone experiences this. Decline in mental speed but problem -solving ability remains largely unimpaired if older people are given adequate time to compensate for their reduced speed. High levels of mental activity can delay the typical age-related decline in cognitive functioning e.g. those who have continued to work until old age experienced smaller decrements in cognitive functioning; continuous engagement in intellectually challenging activities in late adulthood serves to buffer against cognitive declines. Changes in the Socioemotional area The elderly tend to reduce their social network. Their social relationships become limited to a smaller circle of friends and relatives, much unlike when they were younger. They have learned to select only those social relationships that are most meaningful to them. Erikson’s view about late adulthood/ the aging years Integrity vs. despair ○ In old age, the challenge is to avoid the tendency to dwell on past mistakes and on one’s imminent death. ○ People have a need to find meaning in their lives. ○ The strength of this stage is wisdom. DEATH AND DYING Dealing with deaths of family members, friends, and relatives is one of the things that an elderly has to face. Final challenge is to confront one’s own death. Death is a taboo topic in Western societies. People use euphemisms such as passing away or passing on to avoid the word itself. But attitudes toward death and dying is not universal e.g. in Mexican culture, death is frequently discussed and is celebrated on a national feast day, the Day of the Dead (DeSpelder & Strickland, 1983) Anxiety about death declines from early to late adulthood. The elderly are more likely to fear the period before death than death itself- they are anxious of who will take care of them or where they will live. Bereavement is experienced when someone close to people dies and this is something that we should cope with. Religiosity or spirituality increases as the elderly face the end of their life. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY: Stress and Coping Stress Any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well-being and tax one's coping abilities (Weiten, 2017) People's response to events that threaten or challenge them (Feldman, 2015) Stressors Circumstances that produce threats to our well-being We learn to adapt to stress; adaptation requires a major effort when stress is more severe or long lasting. Attempts to overcome stress may produce biological and psychological responses that result in health problems. * Psychosomatic illness The Nature of stressors For us to consider an event as stressful, we must perceive it as threatening or challenging and there is a lack of resources to deal with it effectively. The same event may be considered as stressful in one circumstance and not in other times. Person's interpretation of events plays an important role in the determination of what is stressful. Categories of Stressors  1. Cataclysmic events Occurs suddenly and typically affect many people simultaneously. e.g. disasters - tornadoes, plane crashes, terrorist attacks Produce less stress in the long run because they have a clear resolution; once over, people can look to the future. 2. Personal stressors Major life events e.g. death of a family member, loss of one's job, getting married, etc. Typically produces a major reaction then tapers off. People are better able to cope after the passage of time Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Person has experienced a significantly stressful event that has long-lasting effects that may include re-experiencing the event in vivid flashbacks or dreams May be triggered by a neutral stimulus Symptoms include: emotional numbness, sleep difficulties, interpersonal problems, alcohol and drug abuse, and in some cases, suicide Examples: soldiers returning from war, rape victims, rescue workers facing overwhelming situations, terrorist attacks, etc. 3. Background stressors or daily hassles Minor irritations of life that people face from time to time. E.g. traffic jam, standing in a long line at a bank, living in crowded places, dissatisfaction with relationships, etc. Do not require much coping or even a response but they produce unpleasant emotions and moods. BUT may add up and take a great toll on individuals The number of daily hassles that we face is associated with psychological symptoms and health problems such as flu, sore throat, and backaches uplifts - the flipside of hassles; the minor positive events that make us feel good even if only temporary. The greater the uplifts we experience, the fewer the psychological symptoms we report. Stress can produce both biological and psychological consequences Exposure to stress generates a rise in the secretion of hormones by the adrenal glands, increase in heart rate and blood pressure, and changes in how well the skin conducts electrical impulses On a short-term basis, these changes are adaptive because they produce emergency reactions - fight or flight response continued exposure can cause a decline in the body's biological functioning; we become more susceptible to diseases and the ability to fight off infections declines. Psychophysiological disorders - medical problems influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties e.g. high blood pressure, headaches, backaches, skin rashes, indigestion, fatigue, constipation. On a psychological level, high levels of stress prevent people from adequately coping with life. The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Model (Hans Selya, 1976, 1993) Illustrates the long-term effects of stress as a series of stages Physiological response to stress follows the same pattern regardless of the cause of stress. 3 phases: 1. Alarm and mobilization Occurs when people become aware of the presence of a stressor The sympathetic nervous system becomes energized. 2. Resistance stage if the stressor persists During this stage, the body is actively fighting the stressor on a biological level people use a variety of means to cope with the stressor but at the cost of some physical or psychological well-being e.g. a student who is failing will spend long hours studying 3. Exhaustion stage If resistance is inadequate A person's ability to fight the stressor declines; negative consequences of stress appear: physical illness, psychological symptoms (inability to concentrate, irritability, disorientation) Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) Direct consequences of stress 1. Stress has direct physiological results, including an increase in blood pressure, increase in hormonal activity, and an overall decline in the functioning of the immune system 2. Stress leads people to engage in behaviors that are harmful to their health e.g. increased drug and alcohol use, poor eating habits, decreased sleep 3. Stress produces some indirect consequences that ultimately results in decline in health E,g. high levels of stress reduce the likelihood that people will seek medical help or comply with medical advice Stress decreases the ability of the immune system to fight infections; or stress may overstimulate the immune system so that it attacks the body and damage healthy tissue rather than fighting invading bacteria. Coping with Stress Coping - efforts to control, reduce, or learn to tolerate the threats that lead to stress 2 Categories: 1. emotion-focused coping People try to manage their emotions in the face of stress by changing the way they feel about or perceive a problem e.g. accepting sympathy from others, looking at the bright side of a situation 2. problem-focused coping Attempts to modify the stressful problem or source of stress Lead to changes in behavior or to the development of a plan of action to deal with stress. e.g. studying or joining a study group; taking a break from caring for a relative with chronic disease There are other coping strategies that people use avoidant coping - postponement of dealing with the situation. defense mechanisms- unconscious strategies that people use to reduce anxiety by concealing the source from themselves and others.  ○ Examples of defense mechanisms: denial, intellectualization, emotional insulation ( a person stops experiencing any emotion, positive or negative, at all) Learned Helplessness Occurs when people conclude that unpleasant or aversive stimuli cannot be controlled People develop a view of the world that becomes so ingrained that they stop trying to remedy the aversive situation even if they can People develop more physical symptoms and depression when they believe that they have no control over the situation Coping Styles (a general tendency to deal with stress in a specific way) 1. Hardiness A personality trait characterized by a. sense of commitment - ability to throw oneself to what they are doing; see activities they are engaged in as important b. perception of problem as Challenge - hardy people believe that change rather than stability is the standard of life; anticipation of change is positive c. sense of control - perception that people can influence the events in their lives 2. Resilience Ability to withstand, overcome, and thrive after profound adversity Resilient people are generally optimistic, good- natured and have good social skills Usually independent and have a sense of control over their destiny May have its origins in a complex series of biological reactions that involve the release of the hormone cortisol ( allows us to respond to challenges but too much of which can cause damage) There are chemicals that moderate the effects of cortisol (drugs or therapy can stimulate the production of moderating chemicals); some people are genetically predisposed to produce these chemicals making them more resilient. Social Support The knowledge that we are part of a mutual network of caring, interested others enable us to experience lower levels of stress and better cope with the stress that we undergo. Social support demonstrates that a person is an important and valued member of a social network; people provide information about how to better cope with stress Can provide actual goods and services- living quarters for students; study help to students Attending religious services provide health-related benefits Effective Coping Strategies 1. Turn a threat into a challenge 2. Make a threatening situation less threatening Look at the situation from a different perspective, modify your attitude toward it 3. Change your goals Adopt new goals that are practical 4. Take direct action to alter your physiological reactions to stress Biofeedback Exercise 5. Alter the situations that are likely to cause stress Proactive coping- anticipating and trying to head off stress before it is encountered