Psychology 101 Lecture 2 Reviewer PDF

MEMORY retention of information over time through encoding, storage, retrieval (three stages of memory) Encoding Different ways in which information is processed for storage in memory Importance of attention Selective attention focusing on one stimulu...

MEMORY retention of information over time through encoding, storage, retrieval (three stages of memory) Encoding Different ways in which information is processed for storage in memory Importance of attention Selective attention focusing on one stimulus; focus on more important stimuli (mother-baby example) Influenced by motivation Level of interest of the person Based on their profession Divided attention multitasking difficult to encode details because we are not focused on one thing/specific task or stimuli Levels of processing Theory in attention 1. Shallow level - physical features of stimulus (color, size) 2. Intermediate level - stimulus is recognized and given a label (a dog, breed) 3. Deepest Level - information is processed semantically (meaning); make associations (sweet dog, nangangagat) Elaboration Extensiveness of processing at any given level e.g. giving examples instead of memorizing the definition Also making associations Looks at the meaning and not the words Imagery - visual stimulus/strategy Storage Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory Memory storage involves a system characterized by time frames/memory systems Sensory Memory Hold information in its original form for only an instant (fraction of a second); only occurs to the level of the senses (natusok ng needle, sensation cannot be explained because pain is gone) Echoic memory: auditory stimulus retained for several seconds (dry leaves sound) Iconic memory: visual sensory memory which is retained for only 1/4 of a second Short term Memory limited capacity memory  7+-2 (5-9 memories stored) displacement: forgetting previously stored memories Stores memory for 30 seconds Chunking, rehearsal (to retain information from STM) transfer info to STM to LTM Interference: rehearsed info memory becoming displaced, we forget the first items we learned STM as working memory Components: 1. Phonological Loop Briefly store speech-like info Acoustic code (sounds familiar) and rehearsal 2. Visuospatial working memory Stores visual and spatial information (museum) 3. The central executive Stores information from both phonological loop and visuospatial as well as from long term memory Plays an important role in attention, planning, and organizing (planning for an event) Long Term Memory relatively permanent type of memory Difficult to retrieve (been stored for a long time) Strategy to retrieve: Redintegration: using context or cues that allow us to retrieve info in the LTM Types of LTM: Explicit memory (declarative memory) Memory for general facts/knowledge Episodic memory very specific episodes or parts of our life (personal information) Semantic memory Refers to meaning of experience is stored in memory eg. falling in love (remember the particular meaning of experiences; the romantic atmosphere) Procedural memory memory of skills we don’t forget tying shoelaces WE MISSED SOMETHING HERE; PA ADD NA LANG THANKS Prospective memory involves timing (when to do something) and content (what it is that we have to do) Absentmindedness  breakdown in prospective memory Breakdown between attention and memory stage Episodic > Flashbulb memory related to specific, important or surprising event Emotion laden (flashes through your mind suddenly; you feel mad or sad) > Retrospective memory remembering the past > Constructive memory Trying to remember things that happened years ago; there are blanks/gap Can’t be accurate completing memory by assumptions filling in the gaps of the story To find meaning in our stories Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory) Nonconsciously remembering skills and sensory perceptions rather than remembering facts Behavior is affected by past experiences without experience being consciously recollected 3 subsystems of implicit memory 1. Procedural memory memory for skills 2. Priming activation of info already in storage to help remember new information better and faster Example of priming i. Present the words hope walk cake ii. Have you seen it? iii. Providing them stimulus that allows then to remember info Stem completion task i. Present the word stem ii. Ho__ Wa__ Ca__ 3. Classical conditioning Auto; unconsciously remembering (angelus, everyone stops) triggering a learned memory Learning would not be possible without memory Organization of memory 1. Semantic networks mental representation of clusters of interconnected information  Way of organizing your clothes / red-apples-cherry 2. Schema mental framework for stories, layouts (cognitive map) 3. Scripts schema for an event (church flow); sequence of an event Forgetting Causes 1. Failure in encoding 2. Neural Decay - information disintegrates over time 3. Interference - information stored in memory disrupts the recall of other information stored in memory (can’t exactly recall) Proactive interference - information learned earlier disrupts the recall of new information (accidentally writes 2022 instead of 2023) Retroactive interference - material that was learned later disrupts the recall of information learned earlier 4. Cue-dependent forgetting - insufficient retrieval cues 5. Memory dysfunction - alzheimer’s disease, amnesia Retrograde amnesia - memory loss for occurrences prior to certain events, but not for new events ○ Dual memory theory STM being transferred to LTM during a 30 min period (consolidation period) ○ trying to recall the events before the accident Anterograde amnesia - memory loss for events that follows an injury/accident ○ Does not allow you to learn new information Selective amnesia - motivated forgetting; cutting out events 1. Repression 2. Can use hypnosis Amnesia from Korsakoff’s syndrome - afflicts long term alcoholics How to improve memory 1. Mnemonic - memory aid (memory trick) 1. Keyword method - used in learning foreign language 2. Method of Loci - find a familiar place 3. Acronyms 2. Organization cues 3. Take effective notes - main points 4. Practice and rehearse 5. Talk to yourself 6. Context retrieval - go back to the place where info in learned 7. Don’t believe claims about drugs Solomon-opponent theory COGNITION AND LANGUAGE Cognition include all conscious and unconscious processes involved in thinking, perceiving and reasoning Memory (mental process), decision-making’ First Process - Thinking Brain activity in which we mentally manipulate info, including words, visual images, sounds or other data Transforms information into new and different forms, allowing us to answer questions, make decisions, solve problems, or make plans Concepts and mental images: the building blocks of thought Mental Images Representations in the mind of an object or event Not just visual representations but includes ability to 'hear' a tune in our heads Have many of the properties of the actual stimuli they represent Production of mental images is a way to improve various skills Concepts: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people Enable us to organize complex phenomena Help classify newly encountered object on the basis of past experiences Influences behavior Prototypes Typical, highly representative examples of a concept that correspond to our mental image or best example of the concept. ○ e.g. robin is a typical example of a bird vis-à-vis an ostrich Reasoning Process in which information is used to draw conclusions and make decisions Types: 1. Deductive reasoning Reasoning from the general to the specific ○ e.g. start with a general theory, derive a hypothesis from the theory, then test the hypothesis by collecting data to arrive at a conclusion 2. Inductive reasoning Reasoning from the specific to the general Data driven- draw conclusion from a set of data ○ e.g. study a sample of participants and they use the information they observe to form a conclusion Cognitive shortcuts 1. Algorithm A rule that if appropriately applied, guarantees a solution to a problem ○ Examples: mathematical problems, tying your shoe, following a recipe 2. Heuristics A thinking strategy that leads to a solution to a problem or decision May sometimes lead to errors ○ Example: relying on lecture notes over reading the textbook Kinds: a. Availability heuristics Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to think of examples Events that we remember easily are those that occurred frequently in the past and are more likely to occur in the future ○ Example: makes us more afraid of dying in a plane crash than a car accident b. Familiarity heuristics Familiar items are seen as superior to unfamiliar ones Rule of thumb Computers Computers can show rudiments of humanlike thinking because of their knowledge of where to look for answers. Problem Solving Kinds: 1. Arrangement problems Require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements in a way that will satisfy a criterion. ○ Examples: anagram problems (rearranging letters to form a word) and jigsaw puzzles 2. Inducing structure Person must identify the existing relationship among the elements presented and construct a new relationship from among them example: baseball is to bat as tennis is to Structure and size of the elements 3. Transformation problems An initial state, a goal state and a method of changing the initial state into the goal state ○ example: the tower of Hanoi problem Steps in Problem Solving 1. Preparation Understanding and diagnosing problems Representing and organizing a problem  2. Production Generating solutions Can use trial and error means-ends analysis- repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists Forming subgoals Insights or sudden awareness of solutions: Wolfgang Kohler's study 3. Judgments Evaluating solutions Impediments to Solutions: 1. Mental Set - tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist Functional Fixedness -tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use Think outside the box 2. inaccurate evaluation of solutions Confirmation bias - preference on first hypothesis and ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypothesis or solutions Creativity The ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways Divergent thinking - generates unusual but appropriate responses to problems or questions Convergent Thinking - produce responses based on knowledge and logic Cognitive complexity - preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns Language Communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules Grammar System of rules that determine how thoughts can be expressed. Components: 1. Phonology Study of phonemes (smallest basic units of speech that affect meaning and of the way we use those sounds to form words and produce meaning) ○ Example: a in fat and an fate ( different phonemes in English) Differences in phonemes makes it difficult to learn foreign languages Example: Japanese language does not have an r phoneme 2. Syntax Rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences  ○ Example: "TV turn the down"---→ "Turn down the TV" 3. Semantics Meanings of words and sentences ○ Example: boy and man (both males but different age) Semantic rules allow us to use words to to convey the subtle nuances of meaning Language Development: 1. Babbling (3 months to 1 year old) Speechlike but meaningless sounds Any of the sounds found in all languages Young infants can distinguish among all 869 phonemes that have neen identified across all languages Ability declines after 6 to 8 months when infants begin to "specialize" in the language where they are exposed to Critical period for language development- sensitive to language cues and most easily acquires a language 2. Production of language Production of actual words by 1 yr.old Short words with consonants- b, d, m, p, t Language comprehension precedes language production 1 yr. Old - begin to learn more complicated forms of language 2- word combinations 2 yrs. Old - Average child has a vocabulary of 50 words 6 months - Hundred of words ○ Can produce short sentences- TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH 3 yrs. Old - Start learning plurals by adding 's' to nouns; adding 'ed' to past tense verbs ○ -leads to errors - OVERGENERALIZATION- employ rules even when not appropriate (e.g. runned) 5 yrs.old - Acquired basic rules of language but not fully Language Acquisition Explanations 1. Learning Theory approach Language as a learned skill Language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning Children are rewarded when they produce sounds that approximate speech; SHAPING 2. Nativist Approaches Language as an innate skill Noam Chomsky (1968)  Humans are born with an innate linguistic capability that emerges as function of maturation Proposed the nativist approach to language- humans are biologically pre-wired to learn language at certain times and in a particular way All world's languages share a common underlying structure that is pre-wired, biologically determined and universal Evidence for this are the neurological developments related to the development of language abilities, shape of the mouth and throat tailored for the production of speech. Criticism: animals also learn the fundamentals of human language 3. Interactionist approaches Language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances Brain is hardwired for our acquisition of language- provides the 'hardware' that allows us to develop language BUT it is the exposure to language in the environment that allows us to develop the appropriate 'software' to understand and produce language Linguistic-relativity hypothesis Language shapes and may determine the way people perceive and ünderstand the world Language shapes and produces thought ○ e.g. words for snow abundant among Eskimos(?) However, recent researches refute the Linguistic-relativity hypothesis Thinking produces language Eskimos have no more words for snow than English speakers Still, the hypothesis is not fully debunked In many languages there is evidence that some speech patterns influence thinking ○ e. g. Russians have more words for light and dark blues ○ Mayan language (Yucatec)- all nouns require a measurement ○ Icelandic language has 24 words for different types of words ○ Piraha language uses terms like few and many instead of numbers Do animals use language? Controversial issue Despite some evidence, the language that animals use lacks the grammar and the complex and novel constructions of human language. Emotions and Motivations MOTIVATIONS - Comes from the Latin word “movere,” which means “to move.”  - Something that moves us and gives direction to our behavior. - Explains why people behave, think, and feel the way they do. - A question of “why?” - Motivated behavior is energized, directed, and sustained Approaches 1. Evolutionary approach (Biological Approach) Role of instinct in motivation Instincts are the reason why people behave the way they do. Instinct - an innate (unlearned), biological pattern of behavior that is assumed as universal across species [even animals have instincts] Argument: Most psychologists today believe that we do not have instincts because we have already developed the “modern brain” and the “higher centers” of the brain that tells and dictates us what to do. William McDougall (student of Charles Darwin): There are instincts for many things that we do. Instincts for gregariousness (why are we happy?), acquisitiveness, curiosity, self-assertion Freudian Theory: Humans have two basic instincts - Life Instinct: Reflected by our desire to reproduce (to multiply the human species). - Death Instinct BUT, instincts were found to just name behavior, not explain it The instinct approach cannot be definite with the number of behaviors that we have. 2. Drive Reduction Theory (Biological Approach) Drive - an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need A psychological state that happens because of a physiological state of deprivation called a “need.” - Why is the drive considered to be in the psychological state?: There is a tension in the brain that tells us what to do despite the need already being satisfied or done. As the drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it. Example: Hunger. Why do we eat? We eat because we are hungry. - Biologically, there is a process. Our blood maintains a certain level of sugar. When we eat, the food that we intake turns into glucose, which is our blood sugar. These blood sugars circulate around the body and are used to energize the bodily process. Once the sugar in the blood goes down considerably because of not replenishing it through eating, it now creates a need. We maintain a certain level of sugar in our blood by eating. - How do we know if we are hungry? We know we are hungry once our stomach starts to growl or when we feel the hunger pangs. The hunger pangs can now be considered our drive. The drive (hunger pangs) is there to satisfy the need. The drive is the one responsible to bring back the individual to its normal state (homeostasis).  *insert yung diagram na draw ni ma’am* Need - a deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation A physiological state (eating behaviors) As drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it Goal of drive reduction is homeostasis-body's tendency to maintain an equilibrium or steady state 3. Optimum Arousal Theory Individuals always seek arousal (state of alertness or activation) in their lives We do (and do not do) things based on things that will satisfy our curiosity and alertness. Yerkes-Dodson Theory: Talks about the relationship between performance and the level of arousal. - We perform at our best (optimum level of performance) when the level of arousal is moderate. Too little or too high can decrease our performance. Performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal than either high or low. 4. The Cognitive approach Individuals are motivated by what they want, mediated by their ability, expectations for success, confidence People being conscious of what they want Types of motivation a. Intrinsic motivation Self-determination, curiosity, challenge Doing it without rewards Gives a sense of satisfaction b. Extrinsic motivation External incentives (rewards and punishments) Babayaran ba ako pag ginawa ko to? Work is graded 5. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Self-actualization highest, most elusive need; motivation to fully develop one's potential.  ○ Self-actualization ○ Self-esteem ○ Belongingness ○ Safety ○ Physiological needs Issues in Motivation 1. To what degree are we motivated by innate, unlearned, biological factors as opposed to learned, experientially based factors/ 2. To what degree are we aware of what motivates us? 3. To what degree are we internally or externally motivated? Biology of Hunger a. Blood chemistry Glucose - blood sugar Insulin - hormone that causes excess sugar in the blood to be stored in cells as fats and carbohydrates Leptin - involved in satiety (satisfaction sa pagkain, busog) b. Brain processes Lateral hypothalamus (when we need to eat) Ventromedial hypothalamus (stop eating, busog ka na) Obesity and eating behavior can be inherited Basal metabolism rate (BMR) - minimal amount of energy an individual uses in a resting state Set point - weight maintained when no effort is made to gain or lose weight; determined in part by the amount of stored fat in the body. Experiment: balloon inside the stomach Cognitive and sociocultural factors in eating - Sedentary lifestyle - Cultural practices / religious beliefs - Notions of beauty - Food for comfort, reinforcement, gratification Reasons for obesity - Good appetite - Psychology (color of food) - family upbringing 2 eating disorders 1. Anorexia nervosa - refusal to eat, hunger is stress, distorted view of oneself; can lead to heart attack/difficulty in pumping blood  2. Bolimia - constant eating but will vomit the food. They maintain a certain weight. (11/28/2023) Why people behave the way they do: Socio-psychological needs: Need for achievement (as a psychological need) - stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and achieving challenging goals (McClelland, et al). - Seek out situations in which they can compete against some objective e.g. grades, money, etc - People with high need for achievement generally choose tasks that are of intermediate difficulty - they want “achievement” Too challenging - failure - lower self-esteem - People with low achievement motivation seek out easy tasks or very difficult tasks; high fear of failure Measuring achievement motivation Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - Set of pictures - Participants will make a story out of the pictures - From the stories, psychologists measure the need for achievement - Need for Affiliation An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with people. Particularly sensitive to relationships Gender difference: females spend more time with friends than males do Need for Power A tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and be seen as a powerful individual. Work in professions in which their power needs will be satisfied e.g. business management, etc. Gender differences: Men with power needs: are more aggressive, drink heavily, participate in competitive sports, show extravagant, flamboyant behavior Females: channel theses needs in socially responsible manner- showing concern for others or show highly nurturing behavior TYPE A personality - people who are competitive. - workaholics, want to remain on top; high need for achievement and power, low need for affiliation Emotions  Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior. Triggered by an external stimulus (always outside) Functions of Emotions: 1. Preparing us for action Emotions act as a link between events in our environment and our responses e.g. see an angry dog- "fight or flight response" 2. Shaping our future behavior Emotions promote learning that will help us make appropriate responses in the future e.g. emotional response to unpleasant circumstances teaches us to avoid similar circumstances in the future 3. Helping us interact more effectively with others Through verbal and nonverbal behavior, others understand what we are experiencing and to help them predict future behavior Theories of Emotion 1. James-Lange theory (William James and Carl Lange) Emotion is a reaction to instinctive bodily events that occur as a response to some situation or event in the environment "We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble" (James, 1890) Putting the cart (body response) before the horse (Emotions) For every major emotion, there is an accompanying physiological or "gut" reaction of internal organs called visceral experience This specific pattern of visceral response leads us to label the emotional experience Criticisms: 1. Visceral changes/ physiological reactions do not occur quickly in order to produce the emotion. 2. Physiological arousal do not invariably produce emotion e.g. when jogging, we experience increase in heart rate and respiration but no accompanying emotion there is no one-to-one correspondence between visceral changes and emotion Cant define our emotion based on physiological responses of our body 3. There are no specific visceral changes for each emotional experience Although there are specific types of physiological responses associated with specific emotional experiences The Cannon-Bard Theory (Walter Cannon and Philip Bard) Physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus that emanates from the thalamus Perceive an emotion producing stimulus->thalamus sends signal to the autonomic NS (visceral response) and to the cerebral cortex (nature of the emotion being experienced) Not necessary for different emotions to have unique physiological patterns The Schachter-Singer Theory Emphasizes that we identify emotion we are experiencing by observing our environment and comparing ourselves with others (Schachter & Singer, 1962) a cognitive view of emotion Emotions are determined jointly by a relatively nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on the cues from the environment. Experiment: participants injected with epinephrine (excites/arouse people) Environment helps us label our emotion Consensual validation. Contemporary perspectives Advances in the measurement of the nervous system: evidences showing that specific patterns of biological arousal are associated with specific emotions Through Positron Emission Tests (PET) brain scans, it was found that happiness was related to a decrease in activity in certain areas of the cerebral cortex whereas sadness was associated with increases in activity in particular portions of the cortex. Amygdala (in the temporal lobe) plays an important role in the experience of emotions amygdala provides a link between the perception of the emotion-producing stimulus and the recall of that stimulus later ○ neural pathways connect the amygdala, the visual cortex, and the hippocampus (consolidation of memory/printing press), some scientists speculate that emotion-related stimuli can be processed and responded to almost instantaneously. More rational thinking not involved initially. ○ Faster processing: allows reaction to the stimulus ○ Slower processing: helps confirm a threat and prepare a more thoughtful response (Dolan, 2002) (dapat pala di ako tumakbo) Why do people of across cultures express emotions similarly Facial expressions are universal Facial-affect program ○ Present at birth; like a computer, when set into motion, "the program" activates a set of nerve impulses that make the face display an appropriate expression Each primary emotion (happiness, sadness, anger, etc.) produces a unique set of muscular movements forming certain kinds of expressions.  Facial-feedback hypothesis ○ Facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience, but they also help determine how people experience and label emotions. ○ "wearing" an emotional expression provides muscular feedback to the brain that helps produce an emotion congruent with that expression (Davis, Senghas, & Ochsner, 2009; Balconi, Bortolotti, & Crivelli, 2013).