Psychology: Memory Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What are the three stages of memory?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Which of the following is NOT a level of processing in attention according to the Levels of Processing Theory?

  • Shallow Level
  • Deep Level
  • Intermediate Level
  • Conscious Level (correct)

What are the two main types of long-term memory?

Explicit memory and implicit memory.

Sensory memory can hold information for a long period of time.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ______ memory is the type of memory that is responsible for general facts and knowledge.

<p>semantic</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the strategy of using context or cues to retrieve information from long-term memory?

<p>Redintegration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Prospective memory involves remembering to do something in the future.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between episodic and semantic memory?

<p>Episodic memory stores specific personal experiences while semantic memory stores general knowledge about the world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three subsystems of Implicit memory?

<p>Procedural memory, Priming, and Classical Conditioning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashbulb memory is a type of episodic memory that is vivid and often related to an emotionally charged event.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a cause of forgetting?

<p>Sensory Overload (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When previously learned information interferes with the recall of new information, it is known as ______ interference.

<p>proactive</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia?

<p>Retrograde amnesia involves the loss of memories for events that occurred before a traumatic event, while anterograde amnesia involves the inability to form new memories after the event.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a mnemonic technique to improve memory?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Solomon-opponent theory explains how drugs can affect memory.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main processes involved in thinking?

<p>First, transforming information into new forms. Second, manipulating information to answer questions, solve problems, or make plans.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a mental representation in the mind of an object or event called?

<p>Mental Image (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a prototype?

<p>A typical or highly representative example of a concept.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reasoning starts with a general principle and then applies it to specific cases?

<p>Deductive Reasoning (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between an algorithm and a heuristic?

<p>An algorithm is a set of specific rules that guarantee a solution if followed correctly, while a heuristic is a general strategy or rule of thumb that often leads to a solution but doesn't guarantee it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Availability heuristics are based on how easily we can recall examples of an event.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three main types of problems?

<p>Arrangement problems, inducing structure problems, and transformation problems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Trial and error is an example of means-ends analysis, a problem-solving strategy.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is functional fixedness?

<p>The tendency to think about objects only in terms of their typical use.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of grammar?

<p>Morphology (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the smallest unit of sound that affects meaning in a language?

<p>Phoneme.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Syntax refers to the rules that determine the meaning of words and sentences.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first stage of language development in infants?

<p>Babbling.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Language comprehension develops before language production in infants.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the critical period for language development?

<p>The period from birth to around 8 years old.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory of language acquisition suggests that language is an innate ability?

<p>Nativist Theory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Linguistic-Relativity Hypothesis?

<p>The idea that language influences or even shapes our thought and perception of the world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Studies have shown that Eskimos have a larger vocabulary for describing snow than English speakers, supporting the Linguistic-Relativity Hypothesis.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of motivation?

<p>To energize, direct, and sustain behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a factor that influences eating behavior?

<p>Sleep Habits (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The set point theory suggests that our bodies naturally maintain a particular weight range.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main types of eating disorders?

<p>Anorexia nervosa and bulimia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to McClelland, what is the primary characteristic of a high need for achievement?

<p>Seeking out moderately difficult tasks (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between the need for achievement and the need for power?

<p>The need for achievement focuses on personal accomplishments and mastery, while the need for power is about influencing and controlling others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The James-Lange Theory of emotion suggests that physiological arousal precedes emotional experience.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main criticism of the James-Lange Theory?

<p>Physiological changes are not always quick enough or specific enough to cause distinct emotional experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory of emotion suggests that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously?

<p>Cannon-Bard Theory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Schachter-Singer Theory emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in emotional experience.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Facial-Affect Program?

<p>An innate program that triggers specific facial expressions for basic emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis suggests that facial expressions can influence our emotional experience.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Memory

The ability to retain information over time.

Encoding

The process of taking information and putting it into a format that can be stored in memory.

Selective Attention

Focusing intently on one specific stimulus or task, often ignoring other distractions.

Divided Attention

The ability to manage multiple tasks or stimuli simultaneously.

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Levels of Processing Theory

A theory that explains different levels of processing information, each leading to different memory outcomes.

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Shallow Processing

The most superficial level of processing, focusing solely on physical features of a stimulus.

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Intermediate Processing

Processing a stimulus by recognizing and labeling it.

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Deep Processing

The deepest level of processing, involving understanding the meaning and making connections to existing knowledge.

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Elaboration

Expanding on a concept by providing examples, making associations, or looking at its meaning.

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Imagery

A visual strategy used for elaboration that involves creating a mental picture to help remember information.

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Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory

A model of memory storage that suggests information moves through different stages with varying durations.

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Sensory Memory

The first stage of memory, holding information for only a fraction of a second in its original sensory format.

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Echoic Memory

A type of sensory memory that briefly stores auditory information.

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Iconic Memory

A type of sensory memory that briefly stores visual information.

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Short Term Memory (STM)

A short-term memory system with limited capacity, usually holding 5-9 items for about 30 seconds.

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Displacement

The process of forgetting older information as new information is learned and replaces it in short-term memory.

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Rehearsal

A technique used to maintain information in short-term memory by repeating it mentally.

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Chunking

The process of combining smaller pieces of information into larger units to improve capacity in short-term memory.

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Transfer

The process of transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory.

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Interference

The disruption of a memory due to interference from previously or newly learned information.

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Working Memory (WM)

An updated model of short-term memory that emphasizes its active role in processing information.

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Phonological Loop

A component of working memory responsible for storing and manipulating speech-based information.

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Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of working memory responsible for storing and manipulating visual and spatial information.

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Central Executive

The control center of working memory, responsible for directing attention, planning, and coordinating information from other components.

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Long Term Memory (LTM)

A relatively permanent memory system with a vast capacity for storing information for long periods.

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Retrieval

The process of retrieving information from long-term memory, often aided by cues or context.

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Redintegration

A retrieval strategy that involves using contextual cues or associations to retrieve information in long-term memory.

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Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory)

A type of long-term memory that stores general knowledge and facts.

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Episodic Memory

A type of explicit memory that stores personal experiences and events.

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Semantic Memory

A type of explicit memory that stores general knowledge about the world, including meanings of concepts.

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Procedural Memory

A type of long-term memory that stores skills and procedures, often acquired unconsciously.

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Prospective Memory

A type of memory that involves remembering to perform a task or action at a specific time or place.

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Absentmindedness

A breakdown in prospective memory, often due to lapses in attention or forgetting to perform an intended action.

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Flashbulb Memory

A vivid and enduring memory of a specific event, often emotionally significant.

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Retrospective Memory

The ability to recall past events or information.

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Constructive Memory

A type of memory that is often inaccurate, involving filling in gaps in memory with assumptions or inferences.

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Implicit Memory (Nondeclarative Memory)

A type of long-term memory that stores skills and information that are often acquired unconsciously.

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Procedural Memory

A subsystem of implicit memory that stores unconscious memories of skills and procedures.

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Priming

A subsystem of implicit memory that involves the activation of previously learned information, making it easier to access and retrieve.

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Stem-Completion Task

A test used to examine priming effects, where participants are asked to complete a word stem with the first word that comes to mind.

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Classical Conditioning

A subsystem of implicit memory that involves unconscious associations between stimuli and responses.

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Study Notes

Memory

  • Memory is the retention of information over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval.
  • Encoding involves different ways information is processed for storage. Selective attention is focusing on one stimulus, often more important ones like a mother-baby interaction. Motivation and personal interest influence attention. Divided attention (multitasking) is difficult for encoding detailed information.
  • Levels of processing theory describes different levels of processing information. Shallow processing focuses on physical features (color, size). Intermediate processing involves recognizing and labeling stimuli (e.g., dog breed). Deepest processing is semantic; understanding the meaning and making connections (dog barks, playful).
  • Elaboration involves extending processing at any level. Providing examples enhances memorization more than simply memorizing definitions; thinking about the meaning is more important than just the words. Imagery is a visual strategy.
  • Storage is described by the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory, which involves various time-based memory systems. Sensory memory holds information briefly, limited to the senses (e.g., fractions of a second for iconic visual memory, or several seconds for echoic auditory). Short-term memory is a limited-capacity temporary store.

Long-Term Memory

  • Long-term memory is a relatively permanent memory; information is stored for a long time. Retrieval is made possible by redintegration (using context or cues to recall).
  • Explicit memory (declarative) involves general facts/knowledge. Episodic memories are specific events/experiences of one's life. Semantic memory refers to the meaning of experiences. Procedural memory concerns learned skills (e.g., tying shoelaces).
  • Prospective memory is about remembering to do something in the future (timing and content). Absentmindedness refers to a lapse in remembering.

Forgetting

  • Forgetting can occur due to encoding failures, neural decay, interference (old information interfering with new), cue-dependent forgetting (lack of cues to retrieve), or memory dysfunction (e.g., Alzheimer's, amnesia). Memory loss of prior events or experiences is retrograde amnesia, whereas amnesia for new events is anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is memory loss for events before a certain point, but not for new events.

Implicit Memory

  • Implicit memory (nondeclarative) involves skills and sensory perceptions without conscious recall of facts. It's the three subsets include Procedural memory; Priming; Classical conditioning, all of which impact behavior.

Cognition and Language

  • Cognition encompasses all conscious and unconscious processes of thinking, perceiving, and reasoning, including memory, and decision-making.
  • Concepts are mental groupings for similar things, allowing us to organize complex information and understand new objects. Prototypes are commonly associated concepts.
  • Deductive reasoning involves reasoning from the general to the specific. Inductive reasoning is the opposite, from specific to general.
  • Cognitive shortcuts include algorithms (guaranteed solutions) and heuristics (strategies).
  • Heuristics - mental shortcuts or rules of thumb, that can lead to quick solutions but may also lead to errors, e.g. Availability, Familiarity.

Problem Solving

  • Arrangement problems involve rearranging elements (e.g., anagrams, puzzles).
  • Inducing structure problems involve identifying relationships among elements.
  • Transformation problems concern changing an initial state to a goal state (e.g. the Tower of Hanoi).

Cognitive Shortcuts

  • Cognitive shortcuts include algorithms (guaranteed solutions), and heuristics (strategies). Types of cognitive shortcuts are Availability shortcuts where we judge the likelihood of something based on how easily we can think of examples or familiarity, meaning we assume familiar things are superior to unfamiliar things.

Language

  • Language consists of rules that shape the way we use and communicate with words. Components include phonology (smallest sounds), semantics (meaning), and syntax (sentence structure).

Motivations

  • Motivation is something that moves us and directs our behavior.
  • Evolutionary approach attributes motivation to instincts. Drive-reduction theory focuses on physiological needs and psychological drives to reduce those needs, with homeostasis as the end goal. Optimum arousal theory suggests people need a certain level of arousal for optimal performance, and cognitive perspective states that people make motivated decisions based on perceived external factors, ability and expectations, or desires.
  • Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory that lists human needs in hierarchical order. The most basic needs are at the bottom (physiological needs), then safety, belongingness, self-esteem, and self-actualization, making self-actualization the most difficult to achieve.

Emotions

  • Emotions encompass physiological and cognitive aspects. Functions of emotions include preparing us for action, shaping future behavior, and improving communication with others. Theories of emotion, such as the James-Lange theory, suggest emotions result from physiological responses to stimuli. Cannon-Bard theory says emotional experience happens simultaneously with physiological changes. The Schacter-Singer theory suggests emotion is the result of labeling physiological arousal in response to environmental cues.
  • Facial-feedback hypothesis explains how facial expressions can influence emotional experience, particularly by triggering emotions congruent with the expressions.

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This quiz explores essential concepts of memory, including encoding, storage, and retrieval. It examines levels of processing theory and strategies like elaboration and imagery for enhancing memorization. Test your understanding of how attention and personal interest affect memory.

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