PSY 9 Industrial/Organizational Psychology Reviewer Notes PDF

Summary

This document contains reviewer notes for PSY 9: Industrial/Organizational Psychology. The notes cover a range of topics, including the scope of I/O psychology, major fields within the discipline, and methods used in research. The content examines the interactions between worker well-being and the factors that impact organizational performance. The role of job analysis, ethical considerations, and the significance of selecting tests to evaluate different aspects of employee skills are also covered.

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PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) -> I/O Psychology relies extensively on research, quan...

PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) -> I/O Psychology relies extensively on research, quantitative methods, and testing UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY techniques; I/O Psychologists are trained to use empirical data and statistics. WHAT IS I/O PSYCHOLOGY? -> a branch of psychology that applies the principles of psychology to the ❌ I/O Psychologists do not conduct therapy. workplace. -> I/O Psychologists rely on the scientist-practitioner model; 💡Purpose: “to enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and ​ They act as scientists when they conduct research ​ They apply research findings. the organizations they work in, by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior” (Rucci, 2008). -> Professionals in the field can have a positive impact on the lives of other people. ​ They advocate for the well-being of the workers. -> helps organizations to flourish by boosting the motivation of employees. ○​ Which then helps the society as well. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN I/O AND BUSINESS PROGRAMS ​ From a societal perspective, I/O psychologists can also improve the quality of life by increasing employee effectiveness. -> The main difference between I/O psychology and business fields is that I/O psychology examines factors that affect the people in an organization. MAJOR FIELDS IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY There are two approaches in I/O I/O Business 1.​ Industrial Approach -​ Focuses on determining the competencies needed to perform a job. -​ Micro - More on the performance of the -​ Staff the organization with employees who have those competencies -​ Focuses on people organization -​ Increase those competencies through training. -​ Uses data from action research, and then finds solutions. 💡This approach helps the organization hire the right people. PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) 2.​ Organizational Approach -​ Create an organizational structure and culture that will motivate 2.​ Organizational Psychology employees to perform well -​ the field of study that investigates the behavior of employees within -​ Provide working conditions that are safe and result in an enjoyable the context of an organization. and satisfying work environment. 💡This approach is more on building structure of the whole organization. -​ They are concerned with the issues within the organization MAJOR FIELDS IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY -​ Organizational psychologists often conduct surveys. They act as consultants as well. 1.​ Personnel Psychology 💡Makes sure that the workflow of the organization is efficient. -​ the field of study that concentrates on the selection and evaluation of employees. 3.​ Human Factors/Ergonomics -​ a field of study concentrating on the interaction between humans and -​ What people in this field does: machines. -​ Analyzing Jobs -​ Recruiting Applicants 💡Collaborates with engineers and other technical professionals to make the -​ Selecting Employees workplace safer and more efficient. -​ Determining Salary Levels -​ Training Employees -​ Evaluating Employee Performance. -​ Personnel psychologists analyze jobs to obtain a complete picture of what they analyze jobs to obtain a complete picture of what. 💡Making sure that workers matches their job. PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) BRIEF HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY -> Hawthorne studies - a series of studies, conducted at the Western Electric plant in Hawthorne, ​ 1903 Illinois, that have come to represent any change in behavior when people -​ Walter Dill Scott wrote The Theory of Advertising react to a change in the environment. 💡Hawthorne effect: ​ 1910 -​ Hugo Münsterberg wrote Psychology and Industrial Efficiency ​ 1911 -​ When employees change their behavior due solely to the fact that -​ Walter Dill Scott wrote the book Increasing Human Efficiency in they are receiving attention or are being observed. Business -> I/O Psychology used to be called “economic psychology,” “business psychology,” Four Major Changes in I/O Psych in the 1980s & 1990s and “employment psychology” 1.​ Increased use of fairly sophisticated statistical techniques and methods of -> Made its first impact during World War I (Army Alpha and Army Beta tests) analysis ​ Army Alpha - an intelligence test developed during World War I and used 2.​ New interest in the application of cognitive psychology to industry by the army for soldiers who can read. 3.​ Increased interest in the effects of work on family life and leisure activities ​ Army Beta - an intelligence test developed during World War I and used by 4.​ I/O psychologists took a renewed interest in developing methods to select the army for soldiers who cannot read. employees. -> Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth - were among the first scientists to improve productivity and reduce fatigue by studying the motions used by workers. PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) EMPLOYMENT OF I/O PSYCHOLOGISTS EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS (PH Context) 1.​ Bachelor’s Degree 2.​ BLE Psychometricians (Optional) 3.​ Master’s Degree (I/O Psychology) 4.​ BLE Psychologist 5.​ Professional Membership 6.​ PsyD or PhD (Optional) PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) UNIT 2: RESEARCH 1) Ideas, Hypotheses, and Theories ​ Hypothesis – an educated prediction about the answer to a research question. WHY CONDUCT RESEARCH? ​ Theory – a systematic set of assumptions regarding the cause and nature of -> Answering Questions and Making Decisions behavior -​ To help the organization make money and also save money. 2) Literature Reviews -> Research and Everyday Life ​ Journals -​ Helps us to analyze and criticize ○​ a written collection of articles describing the methods and results of new research -> Common Sense Is Often Wrong ○​ Ex: Journal of Applied Psychology, Personnel Psychology, Academy -​ Common sense is not common and is often wrong. of Management Journal ​ Bridge Publications CONSIDERATIONS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH ○​ these publications are usually written by professors about a topic of 1.​ Ideas, Hypotheses, and Theories interest to practitioners, 2.​ Literature Reviews ○​ but they are not as formal or statistically complex as articles in journals 3.​ The Location of the Study ○​ Ex: Academy of Management Executive, Harvard Business Review 4.​ The Research Method to Be Used 5.​ Subject Samples ​ Trade magazines 6.​ Running the Study ○​ a collection of articles for those “in the biz,” about related 7.​ Statistical Analysis professional topics, seldom directly reporting the methods and results of new research (HR Magazine and Training) PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) ​ Magazines -> Informed Consent ○​ an unscientific collection of articles about a wide range of topics - the formal process by which subjects give permission to be ○​ Ex: People, Time, and Cat Fancy included in a study. -> Institutional Review Boards - a committee designated to ensure the ethical treatment of research subjects. 3) The Location of the Study - These review boards pay close attention to confidentiality. ​ Laboratory Research 4) Research Methods To Be Used -> External Validity - the extent to which research results can be expected to hold true 1.​ Experiments outside the specific setting in which they were obtained. 2.​ Quasi-Experiments 3.​ Archival Research -> Generalizability 4.​ Observations - like external validity, the extent to which research results hold true 5.​ Surveys outside the specific setting in which they were obtained. 6.​ Meta-Analysis ​ Field Research 1.​ Experiments -​ the only one that can determine cause-and-effect relationships; -> Field Research -​ a type of research study in which the independent variable is manipulated - conducted in a natural setting as opposed to a laboratory. by the experimenter 💡Field research also provides researchers with ethical dilemma. Psychologists 1.1 Cause-and-Effect Relationships require that subjects participate in studies of their own free will. -​ the result of a well-controlled experiment about which the researcher can confidently state that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) 1.2 Characteristics that define an experiment: 3.​ Archival Research -​ involves the use of previously collected data ​ Manipulation -​ the alteration of a variable by an experimenter in expectation that -​ For example: the alteration will result in a change in the dependent variable. If we want to know what distinguishes good workers from poor workers, ​ Random we could look in the personnel files to see whether the backgrounds of good workers have common characteristics not shared by poor workers. ​ Independent Variable -​ the manipulated variable in an experiment. 4.​ Observations ​ Dependent Variable 5.​ Surveys -​ the measure of behavior that is expected to change as a result of -​ an investigation of the opinions or experiences of a group of people changes in the independent variable. 6.​ Meta-Analysis ​ Experimental Group -​ a statistical method of reaching conclusions based on previous research -​ receives the experimental treatment ​ Effect Size ​ Control Group -​ used in meta-analysis, a statistic that indicates the amount of -​ does not receive the experimental treatment change caused by an experimental manipulation. ​ Mean Effect Size 2.​ Quasi-Experiments -​ used in meta-analysis, a statistic that is the average of the effect -​ Research method in which the experimenter either does not manipulate sizes for all studies included in the analysis the independent variable or in which subjects are not randomly assigned to conditions. -​ Often used to evaluate the results of a new program implemented by an organization. PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) 5) Subject Samples ​ Intervening Variable -​ a third variable that can often explain the relationship between two ​ Random Sample other variables. -​ a sample in which every member of the relevant population had an equal chance of being chosen to participate in the study. ​ Convenience Sample CONSIDERATIONS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH: ETHICS -​ a nonrandom research sample that is used because it is easily available. ​ Type A Dilemma -​ There is a high level of uncertainty as to what is right or wrong, there ​ Random Assignment appears to be no best solution, and there are both positive and -​ the random, unbiased assignment of subjects in a research sample negative consequences to a decision. to the various experimental and control conditions. ​ Type B Dilemma -​ Also called rationalizing dilemmas, the difference between right and 6) Running the Study wrong is much clearer; ​ Debriefed -​ Individuals know what is right but choose the solution that is most -​ informing the subject in an experiment about the purpose of the advantageous to themselves study in which he or she was a participant and providing any other relevant information 7) Statistical Analysis ​ Correlation -​ a statistical procedure used to measure the relationship between two variables PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) 1.​ Writing Job Descriptions UNIT 3: JOB ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION -​ One of the written products of a job analysis is a job description. Job Analysis -​ A brief, two- to five-page summary of the tasks and job requirements -> foundation for almost all human resources activities. -​ found in the job analysis -> process of gathering and analyzing information about the work an employee -​ Job analysis is the process of determining the work activities and performs, the conditions under which the work is performed, and the worker requirements, and a job description is the written result of the job analysis. characteristics needed to perform the work under the identified conditions. 💡without this hiring people would be difficult 💡needed for legal purposes 2.​ Employee Selection -​ The process of selecting an individual for employment based on qualifications, skills, and experience. IMPORTANCE OF JOB ANALYSIS -​ It is difficult to imagine how an employee can be selected unless there is a clear understanding of the tasks to be performed and the competencies It is needed for: needed to perform those tasks ​ Writing Job Descriptions ​ Employee Selection 3.​ Training ​ Training -​ The process of providing employees with the knowledge and skills needed ​ Personpower Planning for their current or future roles. ​ Performance Appraisal ​ Job Classification -​ Job analyses yield lists of job activities that can be systematically used to ​ Job Evaluation create training programs. ​ Job Design ​ Compliance with Legal Guidelines ​ Organizational Analysis PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) 4.​ Personpower Planning 6.​ Job Classification -​ One important but seldom employed use of job analysis is to determine -​ is useful for determining pay levels, transfers, and promotions. worker mobility within an organization. -​ Job analysis enables a human resources professional to classify jobs into Work Mobility groups based on similarities in requirements and duties. -​ the degree to which people are able and willing to move from one job to another. 7.​ Job Evaluation -​ Job analysis information can also be used to determine the worth of a job. Peter Principle: The idea that organizations tend to promote good employees until they 8.​ Job Design reach the level at which they are not competent—in other words, their -​ A definition of the content and method of how work is to be performed. highest level of incompetence. -​ Job analysis information can be used to determine the optimal way in which -​ With this approach, there is a better match between the person being a job should be performed. promoted and the requirements of the job. 9.​ Compliance with Legal Guidelines 5.​ Performance Appraisal -​ Another important use of job analysis is the construction of a performance appraisal instrument. 10.​ Organizational Analysis -​ During the course of their work, job analysts often become aware of certain -​ An assessment of an employee’s job performance and overall contribution to problems within an organization. a company. -​ assessment of employees’ “dependability,” “knowledge,” and “initiative.” Job Analysis Interview -​ Obtaining information about a job by talking to a person per- forming it. -​ Can serve as an excellent source of employee training and counselling. -​ During the course of their work, job analysts often become aware of certain problems within an organization. PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) 1.​ Job Title Writing a Good Job Description -​ An accurate title describes the nature of the job, its power and status level, -​ A job description is a relatively short summary of a job and should be about and the competencies needed to perform the job. two to five pages in length. -​ An accurate title also aids in employee selection and recruitment. -​ must describe a job in enough detail that decisions about activities such as selection and training can be made -​ Job titles provide workers with some form of identity. -​ Instead of just saying that she is a“worker at the foundry,” a woman -​ listing each activity will limit their ability to direct employees to perform can say that she is a“welder” or a “machinist.” tasks not listed on the job description -​ Job titles can also affect perceptions of the status and worth of a job. 1.​ duties can always be added to a job description 2.​ “and performs other job-related duties as assigned” -​ Jobs with higher-status titles were evaluated as being worth more money than jobs with lower-status titles. -​ Witten result of job analysis -​ Though some organizations allow their employees to create their own titles, -​ Needs to be detailed. it is important that employees who are doing the same job have the same title and that the title accurately reflects the nature of the job. According to Hurtz and Wright (2012) a job description should contain the following eight sections: 2.​ Brief Summary -​ a paragraph in length 1.​ Job title 2.​ Brief summary -​ should briefly describe the nature and purpose of the job. 3.​ Work activities 4.​ Tools and equipment used -​ can be used in help-wanted advertisements, internal job postings, and 5.​ Work context company brochures 6.​ Performance standards 7.​ Compensation information 8.​ Personal requirements. PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) 3.​ Work Activities 7.​ Compensation Information -​ lists the tasks and activities in which the worker is involved -​ This section of the job description should contain information on the salary grade, whether the position is exempt, and the compensable factors used to -​ tasks and activities should be organized into meaningful categories to make determine salary. the job description easy to read and understand Grade - A cluster of jobs of similar worth. 4.​ Tools and Equipment Used -​ lists all the tools and equipment used to perform the work activities in the 💡employee’s actual salary or salary range should not be listed on the job previous section description -​ used primarily for employee selection and training 8.​ Job Competencies -​ This section contains what are commonly called job specifications or 5.​ Job Context competencies. -​ This section describes the environment in which the employee works and mentions stress level, work schedule, physical demands, level of -​ These are the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) responsibility, temperature, number of coworkers, degree of danger, and any other relevant information. -​ The competencies section should be divided into two subsections. The first contains KSAOs that an employee must have at the time of hiring. The -​ important in providing applicants with disabilities with information they can second subsection. use to determine their ability to perform a job under a particular set of circumstances 💡Job Specifications -​ A relatively dated term that refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities 6.​ Work Performance needed to successfully perform a job. “Competencies” is the more common -​ A brief description of how an employee’s performance is evaluated and what term used today. work standards are expected of the employee. 💡Competencies -​ The job description should outline standards of performance. -​ The knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics needed to perform a job. PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) ​ divided into two subsections: 💡Consultants are a good choice for conducting a job analysis because they are well trained and have extensive experience (but very expensive). 1.​ KSAOs that an employee must have at the time of hiring 💡An interesting alternative to consultants is the use of college interns. Graduate 2.​ KSAOs that are an important part of the job but can be obtained after being students from I/O psychology programs tend to have job analysis training and hired experience and can be employed for a relatively small cost (often, at no cost). ​ first set of KSAOs is used for employee selection and the second for training 2.​ How Often Should a Job Description Be Updated? purposes -​ a job description should be updated if a job changes significantly. -​ fairly often for high-tech jobs; not so for jobs such as package handling and Preparing for a Job Analysis others ​ Prior to conducting a job analysis, several decisions must be made that -​ An interesting reason that job descriptions change across time is: will influence how it is conducted: Job crafting -​ The informal changes that employees make in their jobs. 1.​ Who Will Conduct the Analysis? 2.​ How Often Should a Job Description Be Updated? -​ A process in which employees unofficially change their job 3.​ Which Employees Should Participate? duties to better fit their interests and skills. 4.​ What Types of Information Should Be Obtained? -​ It is common for employees to quietly expand the scope of their 1.​ Who will conduct the analysis? jobs to add tasks they want to perform and to remove tasks -​ Typically, a job analysis is conducted by a trained individual in the that they don’t want to perform Human Resources department, but it can also be conducted by job incumbents, supervisors, or outside consultants. > If job incumbents or supervisors are used, it is essential that they be thoroughly trained in job analysis procedures. PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) Which Employees Should Participate? What Types of Information Should Be Obtained? -​ for small organizations, it is advisable to have all employees participate -​ An important decision concerns the level of specificity. -​ in terms of level of specificity: specific versus general behaviors. -​ for larger organizations, it is generally advisable for job analysts to keep interviewing incumbents until they do not hear anything new -​ In such a situation, the work obviously must be performed in a specific manner for the greatest financial savings. Thus, the job analysis is more ​ “How many people need to be included in the job analysis?” effective at a more detailed level. -​ The answer to this question to some extent depends on whether the -​ A related decision addresses the issue of formal versus informal job analysis will be committee-based or field-based. requirements. ​ Committee-based job analysis -​ In addition, informal requirements (e.g., picking up mail) may need to be -​ a group of subject-matter experts (people who are knowledgeable made more formal to reduce potential confusion regarding who is about the job and include job incumbents, supervisors, customers, and responsible for the task. upper-level management) meet to generate the tasks performed, the conditions under which they are performed, and the KSAOs needed to perform them. Conducting a Job Analysis ​ Field-based job analysis -​ the job analyst individually interviews/observes a number of 💡the goal of most job analyses is to identify the tasks performed in a job, the conditions under which the tasks are performed, and the KSAOs needed to perform incumbents out in the field. the tasks STEP 1: IDENTIFY TASKS PERFORMED STEP 2: WRITE TASK STATEMENTS STEP 3: RATE TASK STATEMENTS STEP 4: DETERMINE ESSENTIAL KSAOS STEP 5: SELECTING TESTS TO TAP KSAOS PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) STEP 1: IDENTIFY TASKS PERFORMED STEP 3: WRITE TASK STATEMENTS -​ Gathering existing information (job descriptions, task inventories, and ​ Task Analysis training manuals ○​ the process of identifying the tasks for which employees need to be trained; using a group of SMEs to rate each task statement on the -​ Interviewing Subject-Matter-Experts (SMEs) frequency and the importance or criticality of the task being -​ those knowledgeable about the job (supervisors and incumbents); performed. individual versus groups -​ Observing incumbents -​ Job Participation - a job analysis method in which the job analyst performs the job being analyzed STEP 2: WRITE TASK STATEMENTS ​ Task inventory ○​ a questionnaire containing a list of tasks each of which the job incumbent rates on a series of scales such as importance and time spent. STEP 4: DETERMINE ESSENTIAL KSAOS ​ must contain an action (what is done) and an object (to which the action is ​ Knowledge - a body of information needed to perform a task. done), where the task is done, how it is done, why it is done, and when it is ​ Skill - the proficiency to perform a learned task. done ​ Ability - the basic capacity for performing a wide range of tasks, acquiring knowledge, or developing a skill. ​ Other Characteristics - factors that are not knowledge, skills, or abilities such as personality, willingness, interest, degrees, and motivation and such tangible factors as licenses, degrees, and years of experience. PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) STEP 5: SELECTING TESTS TO TAP KSAOS ​ used to select new employees and include such methods as interviews, work samples, ability tests, personality tests, reference checks, integrity tests, biodata, and assessment centers

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