Nurs 116 Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

Midterm 1 1. What is a dependent variable? a. Independent variable - extra treatment or special condition, doesn’t rely on other variables, independent. b. Dependent variable - variable that may change as a result of the independent variable (whatever new condition expe...

Midterm 1 1. What is a dependent variable? a. Independent variable - extra treatment or special condition, doesn’t rely on other variables, independent. b. Dependent variable - variable that may change as a result of the independent variable (whatever new condition experimenter adds). 2. The difference between - scientific method ( five steps) a. begin with curiosity: asking questions, theory, research, observations. b. Develop a hypothesis: prediction that can be verified c. testing a hypothesis: design a study and conduct research to gather empirical evidence. - May be through experiments, groups, etc d. draw conclusions: use evidence to support or refute the hypothesis. Consider any other interpretations, unexpected results, bias. e. Report the results, replication: share data, conclusions, limitations. Suggest further research through replication. 3. Know the different periods in prenatal development - a. Early-Critical: A time when something MUST occur for normal development or the time when an abnormality arises. Ex: humans grow arms/legs, hands/feet, and fingers/toes 28-54 days after conception. b. Late-Sensitive: A development that occurs at a certain time. Can occur later but there may be impairments. i. Ex: Language. Happens between ages 1-3 but can still develop late, it might just be grammatically impaired. 4. Know the difference between- a. Conclusion: analyzing the data and correlating it to the overarching hypothesis, what was the outcome? (similar to a judgment based on evidence) b. Result: the overall consequence or affect of a study c. Empirical Evidence Hypothesis: information gathered through observation or experiments used to support or disprove a hypothesis - One of the key parts within the scientific method to prove or possibly disprove a hypothesis 5. Know these difference between these in a case study - a. Longitudinal: collecting data repeatedly on the same individual as they age - Ex: looking at yourself through different ages b. Cross-sectional: groups of people of one age compared with people of another age i. Remember: Cross data from different sections of age groups. c. Cross- sequential Research: studying several groups of people of different ages AND following them over the years - This approach uses both the cross sectional and longitudinal approach in one 6. What is replication: a. Replication: repeating a study’s procedures and methods, usually using different participants - Ex: various age, SES or culture 7. Traits vs Conditions: a. Traits: distinguished quality or characteristic belonging to a person, may be genetic - Ex: temperamental traits are considered genetic b. Conditions: 8. Genes vs Development: a. Genes: basic unit of hereditary passed down from parents b. Development: the process by which someone grows and develops through experiences that vary based on culture, religion, etc. 9. Nature Vs Nurture: a. Nature: influences of the genes people inherit b. Nurture: environmental influences, beginning with health, diet, and stress of the future person's mother at conception. 10. Qualiigenic a. 11. Non Additive a. A genetic effect that does not increase when combined or over time. 12. Monozygotic (twins): a. Twins that come from a single egg, they are also called identical twins 13. Dizygotic Twins: a. Two ova are fertilized by two sperm at about the same time, fraternal twins 14. What is epigenetics? a. The many aspects of the science of how the environment affects genetic expression. 15. What is qualigenetics? a. Again something I couldn't find… maybe something to confuse with epigenetics and teratogens? 16. What are teratogens? a. Teratogens: anything from drugs, viruses, pollutants, malnutrition stress and more that increase the risk of prenatal abnormalities  - Increases problems in the brain which may result in hyperactivity, aggression, or an intellectual disability 17. When do you expect kids to have multi word sentences? What month? a. At the age of two, children begin to form multi word sentences with 2-6 words 18. What is- a. Social Cultural Perspective: the view on certain practices based on a culture’s personal beliefs, traditions, etc - Ex: co-sleeping, school, day care, early communication, etc b. Early Communication: i. Listening and responding: child directed speech - High pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants, preference for voices over noises ii. Babbling: occurs between 6-9 months (universal) - Extended repetition of certain syllables such as baba iii. Gestures - Powerful means of early communication, pointing - Baby signing enhances parent responsiveness iv. First words: about 1 year of age - Spoken vocabulary gradually increase about ONE new word a week 19. Know difference between the stages in sensorimotor development: Stage 1: Birth-1 month - Reflexes such as sucking, grasping, staring, listening - Ex: sucking anything that touches the lips or cheeks Stage 2: 1-4 months - First acquired adaptations: accommodation and coordination of reflexes - Ex: sucking a pacifier differently from a nipple Stage 3: 4-8 months - Making interesting sights last: responding to people & objects - Ex: clapping hands when mother says patty cake Stage 4: 8-12 months - New adaptation and anticipation: becoming more deliberate and purposeful in responding to people and objects - Ex: putting mother’s hands together in order to make her start playing patty cake Stage 5: 12-18 months - New means through active experimentation: “little scientist” - Ex: putting a teddy bear in the toilet and flushing it Stage Six: 18-24 months - New means through mental combinations: thinking before doing, new ways of achieving a goal without resorting to trial and error - Ex: before flushing the teddy bear again, hesitating because of the memory of the toilet of the toilet overflowing and mother’s anger 20. A baby grabs an object but closes his hands too early or too late. How old is the child? a. 4 months? 21. According to Skinner, what causes the vocabulary of a dozen words by the age of 10 months? a. Operant conditioning due to positive reinforcement through imitation and shaping b. Positive reinforcement - from caregivers correctly imitating and producing those words. 22. What do you call a rapid increase in vocabulary? a. Word spurt or vocabulary spurt - not sure? b. Maybe also “naming explosion” 23. What are the child's main tasks during the sensorimotor stage? a. The development of “object permanence” which is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. 24. A kid is fascinated with toilets, he puts stuffed animals inside. What sensorimotor stage is this? Is it 3, 4, 5, or 6? a. Sensory motor stage 5. During this time children are being scientists and experimenting with objects. 25. What is lateralization? a. Side deadness; one side is more dominant than the other. b. Definition: the idea that two slides of the brain have different functions and specialize in different tasks. 26. Gross motor skills: During the first 2 years of development. Had to do with big movements. a. Sitting unsupported, standing, crawling, walking well, running, jumping, etc. 27. Fine motor skills: Physical abilities that involve small body movements, especially with their hands and fingers. a. Drawing, grasping a rattle, stacking blocks, etc. 28. Limbic system development: growth and maturation of the limbic system. 29. Secure attachment: type B; feel comfortable and confident where caregiver is “base for exploration”, giving assurance and enabling discovery, departure causes stress. a. EX: scramble down from parent’s lap, 30. Self awareness: person realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people. 31. Self-control: the ability to regulate one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviors - Oftentimes seen in the form of behaviors to achieve goals and resist any temptations 32. A mother left her child for 10 minutes, when she returned the child climbed onto her lap. What kind of attachment is this? a. Secure attachment 33. Let's say you leave a baby with a babysitter, they are 13 months old. How do you think they will react? a. They may be fearful because from 9-14 months, babies typically have a fear of social events (strangers, separation from caregiver). 34. A kid is mimicking exactly the same expression. What is this called? a. Imitation/mirroring 35. Social Awareness Questions: a. Zone proximal development (ZPD). What do they use to encourage learning? i. All individuals learn within ZPD, an intellectual arena where new ideas and skills can be mastered; includes ideas and skills that children are closer to mastering, but cannot demonstrate independently. b. What is adding new words very quickly for the child's ability to adapt their learning? i. Fast-mapping 36. What is amygdala? a. Tiny brain structure that registers emotions, particularly fear and anxiety - Increased activity may result in terrifying nightmares or sudden terrors 37. What should a parent do when a kid gets scared from their dream? a. 38. What is overregulation, logical extension, and fast mapping?  a. Overregulation: Application of rules of grammar when exceptions occur making the language seem more “regular” than it is. i. EX: overregularize adding s’. ii. Pragmatics - use of language including ability to adjust language communication according to audience and context. b. Logical Extension: After learning a new word, children use it to describe other objects in the same category. i. Ex: Little girl who described seeing “Dalmatian Cows”. She connected dalmatian dogs with cows. c. Fast Mapping: Speed and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new worlds by placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning. 39. What is scaffolding, object performance, and conservation? a. Scaffolding: temporary support tailor to learner’s needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process. i. Imagine establishing the foundation, step by step in their development. b. Object Permanence: Infants learn that objects still exist when out of sight c. Conservation 40. An example given and we figure out if it's Skinner, Piaget, Vygostsky, or Freud? a. Skinner: infants need to be taught, social impulses fostering infant language and infants teaching themselves - Ex: repetition, teachers, etc b. Piaget: emphasis on preoperational thought - Cognitive development between ages of 2-6 symbolic thought emerges because logical and operational think is NOT possible yet - Ex: unicorns and magical stuff relating to animism c. Vygostky: emphasis on social learning - Children learning through others such as being guided through mentors - Ex: playing with blocks and building (STEM activities) d. Freud: emphasis on psychoanalytic theory that proposed five stages listed down below Piaget Name of period Characteristics Major Gains Birth - 2yrs Sensorimotor Use senses and motor Infants learn that objects abilities to understand the still exist when out of sight world (object permanence). Active learning, no Think through mental reflection actions. (Sensorimotor) 2-6 yrs Preoperational Children think Imagination flourishes, symbolically, with language becomes a form language. of self-expression and social influence.  They’re egocentric (perceive from their own space) 6-11 yrs Concrete Understanding and logical Children grasp concepts of thinking. conservation, #, classification, etc. Thinking is limited by direct experience. 12-adulthood Formal Abstraction and Ethics, politics, and social hypothetical concepts as moral issues become used. interesting for adolescents. Analysis and emotion are Adults use theoretical used. reasoning. 41. What is specialization of the functioning of the 2 houses of the brain when they start connecting? a. 42. What is the focus on appearance? a. Focus on appearance - preoperational thought; centration, appearance-reality distinction. i. Second characteristic of preoperational thought, exclusive of other attributes. EX: girl given a short haircut worries they turned into a boy. 43. Logical reasoning, statics reasoning, amnesty, centration, magical thinking a. Static reasoning - believe the world is stable, unchanging, always in the state they encounter it. EX: children can’t believe their parents as children. 44. Give an example of scaffolding a. Temporary support that is tailored to a learned need and abilities. Aimed at helping them master a task in a given learning process. 45. What is nature and nurture acting together? What about Nature and nurture acting separately? a. Together: i. Ex: Someone with a genetic predisposition for music in a well-off family may develop the trait to play music because they have access to instruments. Someone with the same genetic predisposition in a low-income family may not develop the trait to play music because they don't have exposure to it. b. Separately: i. Ex: Someone who is not more with genetic predisposition to be aggressive might still become aggressive if they are raised in a violent household.  1. Nature - influence of gene inheritance.\ 2. Nurture - environment influences affecting development. 46. Learning vs heredity a. Comparison with nature vs. nurture? Follows the same content. 47. What is plasticity? a. The idea that abilities, personality, and other human characteristics are moldable and thus can change 1. People and change over time 2. New behavior is affected by what has already happened Ex. Brain is continuing to grow and develop neuron pathways. Or someone that has gone through trauma 48. Not learning to read, what period is this? Critical, early age , or sensitive a. Sensitive 49. What is symbolic thought, conservation and concrete operations, irreversibility a. Conservation - notion that the amount of something remains the same (is conserved) despite changes in its appearance. i. According to Piaget, only grasp concept of conservation at age of 6 or 7, so they can be misled by taller (volume), spacing (number), matter (length), length (directionality) 50. Example of fine motor skill a. Examples of fine motor skills include a child using a pencil to write, using scissors to cut, using colors to draw a picture, etc. Application Questions: 51. There's a 3 year old who is working on a craft project at preschool. She is repeatedly reminded to sit still. What is most likely the explanation of this behavior? a. She is displaying normal lack of impulse control 52. Example of gross motor skills a. Develops over the first 2 years of life: sitting unsupported, standing, holding on, crawling, creeping, walking well, walking backward, running, jumping up 53. What is stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, uncertainty checking, social referencing (ch 4)? a. Stranger Anxiety: b. Separation Anxiety: Clingings and crying when a comforting caregiver is going to leave. Starts at age 1, intensifies at 2. After age 3, it can be an emotional disorder. c. Uncertainty check-in/ing?: d. Social Referencing: Seeking emotional responses or information from other people. Observing someone else's expressions and reactions and using the other person as a social reference.  54. What is stranger wariness, fear of the unknown, separation anxiety? a. Stranger Wariness: Fear of unfamiliar people, especially when they move close. b. Fear of the unknown: anxiety or discomfort felt when placed in unfamiliar/unpredictable situations. c. Separation Anxiety: Fear or worry of being separated from a nurturant figure. 55. What is a social smile? a. Happens at 6 weeks; is a smile evoked by a human face. 56. What does a strange situation measure? a. Strange Situation - lab procedure to measure attachment, measures details on 1-year old’s reactions to stress with or without the caregiver. i. More specifics… playroom, child & caregiver are together, then caregiver and stranger enter and leave the room. Based on the responses, they are given an A, B, C, D attachment. 1. Variables to consider: exploring toys, reaction to the caregiver’s departure/return. ii. Caregiver’s departure - secure - notices the departure and shows sign of missing them (pause in playing, worried expression). 57. When you play goldfish, the game requires quick thinking. What do you think is the change in the brain to support this ability to think quickly? a. Myelination of axon 58. What is temperament? a. Inborn differences between 1 person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation. Measured through a person's typical responses to the environment. Types of Attachments: - Insecure avoidant (A): infant avoided connection with caregiver because they aren't close to their parents; insecure. - Secure Attachment (B): Infant obtains confidence from the presence of their caregivers. - Insecure-resistant/ambivalent (C): Anxiety and uncertainty are evident when an infant seeks contact. Upset about being distant with contact at return - Disorganized (D): Infants inconsistent reaction with caregiver. Sometimes they like them, other times they hate them. - Ex: Sometimes they like when people kiss them, other times they dont. Additional Notes Age Freud (psychosexual) Erikson (psychosocial) Birth-1 year Oral Stage Trust vs. Mistrust - Lips, tongue, and gums - Babies either trust that others will are the focus of satisfy their basic needs including pleasurable sensations in nourishment, warmth, cleanliness, the baby’s body and physical contact or mistrust  1-3 years Anal Stage Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - The anus is the focus of - Children either become pleasurable sensations in self-sufficient in many activities the baby’s body, and including toileting, feeding, emphasis toilet training walking, exploring, talking, or doubt their own abilities 3-6 years Phallic Stage Initiative vs. Guilt - The phallus (Latin for - Children either try to undertake penis) is the most many adultlike activities or important body part, and internalize the limits and pleasure is derived from prohibitions set by parents genital stimulation - Children feel either adventurous or guilty 6-11 years Latency Industry vs. Inferiority - Not really a stage, sexual - Children busily practice and needs are quiet energy master new skills or feel inferior flows into sports, school, (unable to do any of their desired and friendships goals) Adolescence Genital Stage Identity vs. Role Confusion - The focus of pleasurable - Adolescents ask themselves “who sensations, and the young am I?” person seeks sexual - They establish sexual, political, stimulation and religious, or vocational identities satisfaction in or feel confused about their roles heterosexual relationships Adulthood Cont. Genital Stage Intimacy vs. Isolation - Freud believed the genital - Young adults seek companionship stage continued into and love or become isolated adulthood Generativity vs. Stagnation - Middle aged adults contribute to future generations through work, creative activities, and parenthood or they stagnate Integrity vs. Despair - Older adults try to make sense of their lives, either seeing life as meaningful whole or despairing at goals never being reached Additional Notes: Classical Conditioning: Learning occurs through association Result: neutral stimulus becomes conditioned response Operant Conditioning: aka instrumental conditioning - Learning occurs through reinforcement and punishment - animals/humans perform some action and then a response occurs - If the response is useful/pleasurable the animal is likely to repeat the action Pre term babies: born two or more weeks early Experience Expectant Growth: basic experiences needed for the brain to grow Experience dependent growth: built in plasticity creating neurological connections based on experiences that vary in culture Important People: - Pavlov - classical conditioning. - Skinner - operant/instrumental conditioning. - Bandura - social learning theory. - Freud - Piaget