Psychology Notes PDF

Chapter 1 ​ Psychological Disorders: it is a psychological dysfunction within an individual associated with distress or impairment in functioning and a response that is not typical or culturally expected. Psychological dysfunction also refers to the breakdown in cognitive, e...

Chapter 1 ​ Psychological Disorders: it is a psychological dysfunction within an individual associated with distress or impairment in functioning and a response that is not typical or culturally expected. Psychological dysfunction also refers to the breakdown in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning. ​ Psychopathology: the scientific study of psychological disorders. ​ Clinical psychologists typically receive a Ph.D, this education prepares them to conduct research into the causes and treatment of psychological disorders (6 to 7 years) Defining Psychopathology 1.​ Statistically infrequent: How rare does it have to be to be a 2.​ psychological disorder? 3.​ Distress: personal suffering 4.​ Dysfunction: Breakdown in cognitive, emotional or behavioural functioning 5.​ Deviance: Thoughts, behaviours, or emotional reactions that run counter to cultural expectations 6.​ Danger: to self or others. People with mental illness are 2 to 4 times more likely to be a victim of violence (rather than a perpetrator) DSM-V Definition of Psychopathology ​ Behavioural, psychological, or biological dysfunctions that are unexpected in their cultural context and associated with present distress and impairment in functioning, or increased risk of suffering, death, pain or impairment Scientist Practitioners: ​ Consume and apply scientific research: Utilize current empirical findings to inform clinical decision-making and interventions.  ​ Conduct original research: Engage in studies that contribute to the scientific understanding of psychological phenomena, thereby enhancing evidence-based practices. ​ Maintain a critical and analytical mindset: Approach both research and clinical work with rigorous scientific methodology, ensuring that practice is continually informed by empirical evidence. Clinical Descriptions: ​ Presenting problem: presents is a traditional shorthand way of indicating why the person came to the clinic. ​ Clinical description: represents the unique combination of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that make up a specific disorder. ​ The word clinical refers both to the types of problems or disorders you would find in a clinic or hospital and to the activities connected with assessment and treatment. ​ How many people in the population as a whole have this disorder is known as prevalence. ​ How many people in the population have ever had the disorder is known as lifetime prevalence. ​ Statistics on how many new cases occur during a given year, such as a year represent the incidence of the disorder. ​ Sex ratio is the gender difference between how many women in comparison to how many men. ​ Chronic course refers to disorders that last a long time, sometimes a lifetime like schizophrenia. ​ Episodic course refers to disorders in which the individual is able to recover from it within a few months or could even have a recurrence of the disorder later (usually mood disorders) ​ Time limited course refers to sleeping disorders, meaning that the disorder will improve without treatment in a relatively short period with little or no risk of recurrence. ​ Acute onset: such as panic disorders that begin suddenly. ​ Insidious onset: develop gradually over time (schizophrenia) ​ Prognosis: refers to the anticipated course of a disorder. Causation, Treatment, and Outcomes ​ Etiology: the study of origins, has to do with why a disorder begins (includes biological, psychological, and social dimensions) The Psychosocial Tradition: ​ The best treatment was to re-educate the individual through rational discussion so that the power of reason would predominate. (this approach lead to modern psychosocial approaches) ​ Plato highlighted the importance of a person’s background and how the social and cultural influences took place in their lives. Aristotle also highlighted this importance.  ​ These two philosophers also wrote about the importance of fantasies, dreams, and cognitions thus anticipated to some extent later developments in psychoanalytic thought and cognitive science. They also advocated humane and responsible care for people with psychological disorders. ​ ​Moral therapy was a humane approach to treating people with mental illnesses in the 18th century. Instead of using harsh treatments like restraints or punishment, it focused on kindness, respect, and creating a peaceful environment. Patients were encouraged to socialize, engage in activities, and receive personal care, believing that a supportive and structured setting could help improve their mental health. ​ In the mid-19th century, asylum reform aimed to improve conditions in mental hospitals, but as more people were admitted, moral therapy declined. Overcrowding, lack of funding, and staff shortages made it hard to provide individual care. As a result, asylums became more like warehouses for patients rather than places for treatment, leading to a return of harsher methods and a shift away from the humane approach of moral therapy. ​ The Mental Hygiene Movement (late 19th–early 20th century) focused on improving mental health care, preventing mental illness, and promoting better treatment for patients. Dorothea Dix started this and helped shift mental health care towards prevention and community support rather than just institutionalization. She also believed in helping the homeless her efforts helped North America become more humane towards those suffering from mental illnesses. However, her efforts soon declined because many more people were institutionalized and there were not enough staff members to provide care. ​ Clarence Hincks was a Canadian psychiatrist and mental health advocate who played a key role in the Mental Hygiene Movement in Canada. He co-founded the Canadian National Committee for Mental Hygiene (CNCMH) in 1918, which aimed to improve mental health care, promote early treatment, and prevent mental illness. Hincks believed in better hospital conditions, early intervention, and community-based care instead of long-term institutionalization. His work helped shape modern mental health policies in Canada. ​ Hincks himself suffered from depression when he was younger, witnessing all the abuse and the lack of skills the staff had, led him to advocate for psych exams & care for soldiers with “shell shock”, post-war psych screening of immigrants, facilities for diagnosis & treatment of mental disease, adequate care of mentally “deficient”, prevention. Canadian Mental Health Association ​ 1950: changed name to CMHA ​ Today: helps more than 100 000 Canadians/year ​ 10 000 volunteers & staff ​ 135 branches throughout Canada ​ Programs offered: employment assistance, housing, early psychosis intervention, stress-reduction programs, peer support Psychoanalytic Theory Freud: (has either been incorrect or unproven, but it still changed how the psyche is viewed today). ​ The Id, the Ego, and the Supereego. Defence Mechanisms ​ Reaction Formation: substitutes behaviour, thoughts, or feelings that are the direct opposite of unacceptable ones ​ Sublimation: directs potentially maladaptive feelings or impulses into socially acceptable behaviour. ​ Neurotic anxiety: a feeling of fear that is not connected to reality or any real threat ​ Defense mechanism: a strategy, unconsciously used, to protect the ego from being overwhelmed with anxiety ​ Function of defense mechanisms: allows the ego to discharge some ID energy while not directly facing the true nature of the motivation Psychosexual Stages of Development ​ Oral Stage (0-1 year) – Pleasure comes from the mouth (sucking, biting). Fixation can lead to habits like smoking or nail-biting. ​ Anal Stage (1-3 years) – Pleasure is focused on controlling bowel and bladder movements. Fixation can lead to being overly neat (anal retentive) or messy (anal expulsive). ​ Phallic Stage (3-6 years) – Children become aware of their genitals. Freud suggested the Oedipus complex (boys desire their mother, fear their father) and Electra complex (girls desire their father, envy their mother). ​ Latency Stage (6-12 years) – Sexual feelings are dormant, and children focus on social interactions, school, and friendships. ​ Genital Stage (12+ years, puberty onward) – Sexual interests mature, and individuals seek romantic relationships. The Oedipus Complex ​ Occurs during the phallic stage (ages 3-6) of development. It suggests that a young boy develops unconscious desires for his mother and sees his father as a rival for her attention. This creates feelings of jealousy and even fear of punishment from the father (castration anxiety). ​ To resolve this conflict, the boy eventually identifies with his father, adopting his values and behaviors, which helps in developing his gender identity and moral values. ​ For girls, Freud proposed a similar idea called the Electra Complex, where a girl desires her father and feels rivalry with her mother. However, this concept is less emphasized in his theory. -​ All disorders that resulted from issues with the previous concepts formed by Freud, he called neuroses or neurotic disorders. Therapies Coined by Freud ​ Free Association: patients are instructed to say whatever comes to mind without the usual socially mandated censoring. ​ Dream analysis: dreams supposedly reflect symbolic aspects of unconscious conflicts (still popular today)  1.​ Transference – This occurs when a patient unconsciously redirects feelings (positive or negative) from past relationships (like with parents or caregivers) onto their therapist. 2.​ Countertransference – This happens when the therapist projects their own emotions onto the patient, often based on their personal experiences. Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning -​ Learning process where an organism learns to associate two stimuli. Pavlov discovered this through his famous dog experiment, where he trained dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by pairing it with food. 1.​ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food makes dogs salivate). 2.​ Unconditioned Response (UCR) – Natural reaction to the UCS (e.g., salivation to food). 3.​ Neutral Stimulus (NS) – A stimulus that initially has no effect (e.g., bell before conditioning). 4.​ Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – After repeated pairings with the UCS, the NS becomes a trigger (e.g., bell now makes dogs salivate). 5.​ Conditioned Response (CR) – The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivating at the bell alone). John B. Watson ​ His famous "Little Albert" experiment showed how fear can be learned—he conditioned a baby to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise. Watson’s work helped shape modern psychology, advertising, and behavior therapy, emphasizing that behavior can be trained and modified through conditioning. B.F Skinner Operant Conditioning 1.​ Positive Reinforcement – Reward increases behavior (e.g., candy for good behavior). 2.​ Negative Reinforcement – Removing discomfort increases behavior (e.g., seatbelt stops car beeping). 3.​ Positive Punishment – Adding discomfort decreases behavior (e.g., extra chores for misbehaving). 4.​ Negative Punishment – Taking away something good decreases behavior (e.g., no phone for bad grades). Joseph Wolpe -​ Systematic desensitization is a behavioral therapy technique used to help people overcome fears and phobias by gradually exposing them to the feared object or situation while teaching relaxation techniques. Consumer Survivor: ​ Lived Experience Matters – People who have experienced mental health challenges should have a voice in shaping mental health services. ​ Stigma and Discrimination Exist – The video sheds light on the challenges of being labeled as a "consumer" of mental health services.  ​ Recovery is Possible – It promotes the idea that individuals can regain control over their lives with proper support, community, and advocacy. ​ The Need for Systemic Change – Mental health systems should move toward more inclusive, patient-centered, and empowering approaches. Integrated Therapy Model: Schema Therapy ​ Schema therapy combines theory & techniques from cognitive & behaviour therapies, Psychoanalytic Object-Relations, Attachment Theory, & Gestalt therapy ​ Unmet core emotional needs in childhood can lead to: early maladaptive schemas (18 identified) e.g., “Everyone leaves me” (abandonment schema) “I am not worth loving” (defectiveness/shame schema) Coping mechanisms: three basic patterns 1. Surrender (e.g., “I am incompetent = highly reliant on others to function) 2. Avoidance (e.g., addictions, constant distraction) 3. Overcompensation – do the opposite of our schema (e.g., feel out of control, engage in extreme planning) Chapter 2 (watch videos of the nervous system/genes/DNA) Causes of Phobias 1.​ Behavioral Influences – Phobias can develop through conditioning (e.g., bad experiences create fear) or by observing others (e.g., seeing someone afraid of spiders makes you fear them too). 2.​ Biological Influences – Some people are genetically more prone to anxiety and fear due to brain structure and inherited traits. 3.​ Emotional Influences – Strong negative emotions (like trauma or panic) can make a fear stronger and harder to control. 4.​ Social Influences – Cultural beliefs and social reactions can reinforce fears (e.g., if a fear is common in your family or society, you may adopt it). 5.​ Developmental Influences – The age and stage of development when a fear first appears can impact how intense and lasting it becomes (e.g., childhood fears may fade, but some stay into adulthood). What is a Paradigm? ​ A set of basic assumptions, a general perspective, that defines how to: conceptualize and study a subject, gather and interpret relevant data, and think about a particular subject ​ A paradigm injects inevitable biases into the definition and collection of data and may also affect the interpretation of facts. The meaning or importance given to data may depend to a considerable extent on a paradigm. Primary/Integrative Paradigms of Psychopathology 1.​ Biological Paradigm – Explains mental disorders through genetics, brain chemistry, and neurological functions. ○​ Diathesis-Stress Model – Suggests that a person inherits a vulnerability (diathesis) for a disorder, which may be triggered by stressful life events. 2.​ Psychoanalytic Paradigm – Focuses on unconscious conflicts, childhood experiences, and repressed emotionsas causes of mental illness. ○​ Schema Therapy – Aims to identify and change deeply rooted patterns (schemas) that develop from negative childhood experiences. 3.​ Humanistic Paradigm – Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and self-actualization in mental health. ○​ Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) – Combines mindfulness, emotional regulation, distress tolerance, and interpersonal effectiveness to help people, especially those with borderline personality disorder. 4.​ Behavioural (Learning) Paradigm – Views mental disorders as learned behaviors through conditioning and reinforcement. ○​ Lazarus’ Multimodal Therapy – A holistic approach that addresses multiple factors (behavior, emotions, thoughts, sensations, imagery, relationships, and biology) in treatment. 5.​ Cognitive Paradigm – Suggests that thought patterns and beliefs shape emotions and behavior. ○​ Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) – A widely used therapy that helps identify and change negative thought patterns to improve emotional and behavioral responses. ​ Behavioral Genetics: ​ Study of individual differences in behaviour attributable to differences in genetic makeup ​ Genotype: unobservable genetic constitution -​ The total genetic makeup of an individual -​ Fixed at birth, but it should not be viewed as a static entity ​ Phenotype: totality of observable, behavioural characteristics -​ Dynamic (i.e., it changes over time)  -​ Product of an interaction between genotype and environment (e.g., high intelligence) Clinical syndromes = disorders of phenotype Predisposition or diathesis may be inherited, NOT the disorder itself! Behaviour Therapy: involves the systematic application of learning principles & techniques to assess & improve individuals’ behaviours to improve functioning Behavioural interventions: 1.​ Positive reinforcement 2.​ Systematic desensitization 3.​ Token economy & shaping 4.​ Social skills training ABC Behaviour Therapy -​ Antecedents: events that cue or elicit a certain behaviour -​ Behaviours: problem behaviour -​ Consequences: events that maintain a behaviour in some way either increasing or decreasing it Humanistic Paradigm by Carl Rogers ​ Insight therapy: disordered behaviour results from a lack of insight & is best treated by increasing an individual’s awareness of motivation & needs ​ Central Assumption: all individuals have an actualizing tendency: an innate capacity for positive growth & self-direction ​ Psychopathology results from any conditions that impede the self actualization tendency process, e.g: conditions of worth: “I will love you if…” Person-Centred Therapy 1.​ Congruence/Genuineness: correspondence between the thoughts & behaviour of therapist. 2.​ Unconditional Positive Regard: therapist’s regard toward client does not change based on the client choices, characteristics, or outcomes 3.​ Empathy: an attitude of profound interest in the client’s world of meanings and feelings​ Integrative Therapy: Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) -​ Theoretical integration: Person-Centred and Behavioural principles -​ Dialectics = worldview that holds that reality is the outcome of a constant tension between opposites -​ Seeming paradoxical stance of the DBT therapist: - accept clients as they are (Person-centred) - help clients to change (BT approach) Cognitive Distortions are: a biased, faulty or inaccurate thought, perception or belief. -​ All or nothing thinking: you look at things in absolute, black and white categories -​ Overgeneralization: you view a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat -​ Mental filter: you dwell on the negatives and ignore the positive Cognitive Behavioural Therapy:  -​ Aim of therapy: use cognitive & behavioural techniques to challenge dysfunctional beliefs & promote more realistic adaptive thinking. -​ Goal of therapy: Correct faulty information processing & help clients modify thoughts/assumptions that maintain maladaptive behaviours & emotions. -​ Initially CBT addresses symptom relief. Ultimate goal: remove systematic biases in thinking The Diathesis-Stress Model -​ Individuals inherit from multiple genes, tendencies to express certain traits or behaviors, which may then be triggered under certain conditions. Each inherited tendency is a diathesis, which is a condition that makes a person susceptible to developing a disorder. When the right kind of life event, such as a stressor comes along the disorder develops. Also known as vulnerability. Based on a sample of 300 American boys, researchers found three biologically based personality types: 1.​ The resilient type 2.​ The overcontrolling type 3.​ The under-controlled type Biological Clinical Approaches to Treatment: -​ An important implication of the biological paradigm: prevention or treatment of mental disorders should be possible by altering bodily functioning. -​ Most biological interventions in common use, however, have not been derived from precise knowledge of what causes a given disorder. Biological Approaches to Treatment: (Most common psychoactive drugs used today) ​ Valium – benzodiazepine – anxiety disorders ​ Prozac – SSRI – depression ​ Clozaril – antipsychotic – schizophrenia ​ Ritalin – stimulant - ADHD Other Biological Treatments: ​ Deep brain stimulation ​ Electroconvulsive therapy Chapter 3 Value of Assessment: 1.​ Reliability: the degree to which a measurement is consistent. 2.​ Validity: The degree to which a technique measures what it is designed to measure. 3.​ Standardization: Application of certain standards to ensure consistency. The Clinical Interview: -​ This is used by psychologists, psychiatrist, and other mental health professionals to gather information on current past behaviour, attitudes, and emotions, as well as a history of the individual’s life in general and of the presenting problem. -​ These clinicians take a look at life stress, trauma, physical illness, they also look at the patient’s interpersonal and social history such as marital status, number of children, student living with parents, sexual development, religious attitudes. The Mental Status Exam: ​ Appearance and Behavior – Observing physical appearance, posture, facial expressions, and movements to assess signs of distress, agitation, or unusual behavior. ​ Thought Processes – Evaluating speech, coherence, logic, and organization of thoughts (e.g., whether speech is disorganized, slow, or shows delusions). ​ Mood and Affect – Mood is the person’s long-term emotional state (e.g., depressed, anxious), while affect is their immediate emotional expression (e.g., flat, exaggerated). ​ Intellectual Functioning – Assesses general intelligence, memory, vocabulary, and ability to understand abstract concepts (e.g., recognizing cognitive deficits). ​ Sensorium – Measures awareness of surroundings, time, place, and identity to check for confusion or disorientation (e.g., asking "What day is it? Where are you?"). Semi Structured Clinical Interviews: ​ Unstructured Interview: follow no systematic format. ​ Semistructured Interview: are made up of questions that have been carefully phrased and tested to elicit useful information in a consistent manner. -​ allows for collection of standardized data -​ SCID-5 (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5) – A standardized diagnostic interview designed to assess and diagnose mental disorders according to the DSM-5. It is used by clinicians and researchers to ensure accurate, reliable diagnoses. -​ branching interview – client’s response to 1 question determines the next question that is asked. 3-point scale of severity: 1=absent, 2=subthreshold,  -​ 3=severe 1.​ ADIS-5 (Anxiety and Related Disorders Interview Schedule-5) – A structured interview used to diagnose anxiety, mood, and related disorders based on the DSM-5. It helps clinicians assess severity, symptoms, and comorbid conditions in a detailed way. -​ Patients are given an 8 point scale to know whether their impulses impact them (it ranges from never, occasionally, to constantly). Then the clinician measureseach obsession by persistence distress (how often it occurs and how much distress it causes) and resistance (types of attempts the patient makes to get rid of the obsession. For compulsions the patient rates their frequency. Physical Examinations: -​ Clinicians can recommend this when patients haven’t had a phsycial exam in the past year because certain mental states can be caused by eating the wrong food, wrong medicine, or the onset of a medical condition. An example would be hyperthyroidism, which mimics generalized anxiety disorder, hypothyroidism mimics depressive thoughts. Delusions and hallucinations with a brain tumor. Behavioural Assessments: -​ Target behaviorus are identified and observed with the goal of determining the factors that seems to influence those behaviorus. ABC’s of Observation with Example: 1.​ Antecedent: his parents asking him to put his glass in the sink 2.​ Behaviour: the child responds by throwing the glass across the room. 3.​ Consequences: his parents’ lack of response to his behaviour. -​ Because the child wasn’t reprimanded for his behavior he will continue doing it. -​ This conclusion was found because of relatively informal observation (the clinician took rough notes on what they witnessed at the boy’s house, which was necessary because the mom did not emphasise his behaviour and the teacher claimed he was violent). This type of observation depends on how the clinician understands the events and how well they remember them. -​ Formal observation involves identifying behaviours that are observable and measurable. An example would be the child does not comply with the mother, and the observer writes down every time it happens, along with what happened before (antecedent), and the after which is the (consequence). Self-monitoring/Self-observation -​ Usually implemented with individuals who suffer from ED and addictions. -​ It is more formally done with checklists and behaviour rating scales. -​ Reactivity: a phenomenon that distorts behavioural data because your mere presence can affect how a person commonly behaves. Projective Testing: -​ A psychological assessment method where people respond to vague or ambiguous stimuli, revealing unconscious thoughts, emotions, and personality traits. ​ Rorschach Inkblot Test – Interpreting inkblots to uncover hidden emotions. he standardized version of the Inkblot Test developed by John Exner is called the Exner Scoring System or the Comprehensive System (CS). Key Features: ​ Created to make Rorschach Inkblot Test more reliable and valid. ​ Provides structured scoring and interpretation based on consistent guidelines. ​ Analyzes responses across multiple factors like perception, thought patterns, and emotional functioning. It is the most widely used method for interpreting Rorschach Inkblot Test results in clinical psychology. ​Assumption regarding Inkblots: -​ due to unstructured nature of stimulus, patient’s responses are primarily determined by unconscious processes & will reveal true attitudes, motivations, & modes of behaviour Personality Inventories: -​ Personality Inventories – These are structured self-report tests where individuals answer questions about their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. The goal is to assess personality traits and psychological conditions. -​ MMPI-II (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) – -​ One of the most widely used clinical personality tests. -​ Helps in diagnosing mental health disorders. -​ Contains true/false statements covering various psychological traits. -​ Empirical & Atheoretical Approach –  -​ Empirical: Based on real-world data, not theoretical assumptions. -​ Atheoretical: Not based on any specific psychological theory, but on how people actually respond to test items. -​ Criterion-Group Strategy (How MMPI was developed): -​ Researchers start with a group of people who share a common trait or disorder (e.g., depression). -​ They select and administer a set of test items to both the criterion group (with the trait) and a control group (without the trait). -​ The final test includes only the items that effectively distinguish between the criterion and control groups (i.e., questions that highlight psychological differences). -​ Consists of : 567 True/False items, 3 Validity scales, 10 personality scales, 60-90 minutes to complete. Administration: computer Why This Method is Important: ​ Ensures that MMPI test items are statistically valid in distinguishing different mental health conditions. ​ Avoids subjective biases because the test is based on real differences in responses rather than theoretical assumptions. ​ Makes MMPI a highly reliable tool for diagnosing psychological disorders and personality traits. This approach makes the MMPI one of the most widely used and scientifically validated personality assessments in clinical psychology. -​ Other Personality Inventories: -​ Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI-III) – Used mainly for diagnosing personality disorders and clinical syndromes. -​ Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) – Measures psychopathology, personality traits, and emotional functioning, commonly used in clinical, forensic, and research settings. The small table in the image shows an example of how respondents might rate statements on a scale (e.g., Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree) to assess different aspects of personality. Purpose of These Tests: ​ Used in clinical psychology, counseling, and mental health assessments. ​ Helps diagnose mental health disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, personality disorders). ​ Guides treatment planning and therapy based on personality traits. 1.​ What is the TAT? ○​ A projective test where individuals are shown ambiguous images and asked to tell a story about them. ○​ The goal is to reveal unconscious thoughts, emotions, and conflicts based on how the person interprets the images. 2.​ How the Test Works: ○​ Step 1: Tell a complete story with a beginning, middle, and end based on the image. ○​ Step 2: Explain what led up to the event and what is happening now in the picture. ○​ Step 3: Describe what the characters are thinking and feeling, which reflects the test-taker's emotions and inner conflicts. ○​ Step 4: Predict the outcome, which may reveal hopes, fears, or expectations about the future. Purpose of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): ​ Helps assess personality, motivation, and emotional well-being. ​ Used in clinical psychology, therapy, and research to uncover deep psychological issues. ​ Helps psychologists understand a person's needs, desires, fears, and conflicts based on how they interpret ambiguous situations. This test is commonly used for understanding personality dynamics and assessing unconscious processes in a person’s mind. 1.​ WAIS-IV Measures Four Index Scales, Each with Core and Supplemental Subtests: ○​ Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) – Assesses language-related reasoning and verbal knowledge. ​ Core Subtests: Similarities, Vocabulary, Information ​ Supplemental Subtest: Comprehension ○​ Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) – Measures non-verbal and spatial reasoning abilities. ​ Core Subtests: Block Design, Matrix Reasoning, Visual Puzzles ​ Supplemental Subtests: Figure Weights (ages 16-69), Picture Completion ○​ Working Memory Index (WMI) – Evaluates short-term memory and attention control. ​ Core Subtests: Digit Span, Arithmetic ​ Supplemental Subtest: Letter-Number Sequencing (ages 16-69)  ○​ Processing Speed Index (PSI) – Assesses the ability to quickly process visual information and perform simple tasks. ​ Core Subtests: Symbol Search, Coding ​ Supplemental Subtest: Cancellation (ages 16-69) 2.​ Full Scale IQ (FSIQ): ○​ The overall IQ score is derived from performance across all four index scales. Purpose of the WAIS-IV: ​ Used in clinical, educational, and neuropsychological assessments. ​ Helps diagnose learning disabilities, cognitive impairments, and intellectual abilities. ​ Assists in career assessments and research on cognitive functioning. This test provides a detailed cognitive profile to help understand an individual’s strengths and weaknesses in different areas of intelligence. Neuropsychological testing -​ Assesses brain function and cognitive abilities using standardized tasks. It helps identify memory, attention, language, problem-solving, and motor skills deficits caused by brain injuries, neurological disorders, or mental health conditions. Used for diagnosis, treatment planning, and tracking cognitive changes over time. -​ An example is the bender visual-motor gestalt test, rhythm test, strength of grip test, Neuroimaging Procedures: 1.​ Images of Brain Structure (Anatomy) – Shows Physical Brain Structures: ○​ CT Scan (Computed Tomography) – Uses X-rays to create detailed brain images, often used for detecting tumors, injuries, or bleeding. ○​ MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) – Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high-resolution images of brain tissues, tumors, and abnormalities. 2.​ Images of Brain Function (Activity) – Shows Brain in Action: ○​ fMRI (Functional MRI) – Measures blood flow changes in the brain to identify active regions during tasks or thoughts. ○​ PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography) – Uses radioactive tracers to track glucose metabolism, showing areas of high or low brain activity, useful in Alzheimer’s and epilepsy studies. ○​ EEG (Electroencephalography) – Records electrical activity of the brain using scalp electrodes, commonly used for seizure detection and sleep studies. Each method helps in diagnosing brain disorders, researching brain function, and guiding medical treatments. Psychophysiological Assessment (EEG) -​ Psychophysiology refers to measurable changes in the nervous system that reflect emotional or psychological events. EEG (Electroencephalography) is a non-invasive test that measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp. What It Does: ​ Detects brain wave patterns and abnormalities. ​ Used to diagnose seizures, sleep disorders, and brain dysfunction. ​ Helps in researching emotions, stress, and cognitive functions. How It Works: ​ Electrodes are placed on the scalp to record brain waves. ​ The signals show different brain states (e.g., awake, asleep, or abnormal activity). ​ Results help in diagnosing and monitoring neurological and psychological conditions. Event-Related Potential (ERP) / Evoked Potential (EP) ERP (Event-Related Potential) or EP (Evoked Potential) is a brain response measured by EEG that occurs after a specific stimulus (sound, light, or touch). What It Does: ​ Measures brain processing speed and activity related to sensory, cognitive, or motor functions. ​ Used in neurological and psychological research, including studies on attention, memory, and perception. ​ Helps diagnose conditions like multiple sclerosis, brain injuries, and cognitive disorders. How It Works: 1.​ A stimulus (e.g., a sound, image, or touch) is presented. 2.​ EEG records brain wave changes in response to the stimulus. 3.​ The results help analyze brain function and processing efficiency. Treatment for Relaxation: -​ Increasing the frequency of alpha waves. -​ Look up alpha, delta waves. Electrodermal Responding (EDR) -​ measures skin conductance changes due to sweat gland activity, which reflects emotional and physiological arousal. It is used in stress, emotion, and lie detection studies to assess autonomic nervous system activity. Diagnosing Psychological Disorders - Key Terms 1.​ Classification – The process of organizing mental disorders into categories based on shared characteristics. 2.​ Taxonomy – The scientific study of classification in psychology and medicine, helping to structure how disorders are grouped. 3.​ Nosology – A system of classification specifically for diseases and disorders, including mental health conditions. 4.​ Nomenclature – The naming system used in classification (e.g., "Major Depressive Disorder" is a name within nosology). Diagnostic Manuals: ​ ICD-11 (International Classification of Diseases, 11th Edition) – A global system by the World Health Organization (WHO) that classifies all diseases, including mental disorders. ​ DSM-5-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition, Text Revision) – A manual by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) used mainly in North America for diagnosing mental disorders. Classical Categorical Approach to Classification (Emil Kraepelin) Emil Kraepelin developed the classical categorical approach to diagnosing mental disorders. This approach assumes: 1.​ Each disorder is unique – Every mental illness has a distinct cause, symptoms, and treatment. 2.​ No overlap – A person can only have one disorder at a time (no mixed symptoms). 3.​ Biological basis – Mental disorders are caused by biological or genetic factors, similar to physical diseases. Dimensional Approach to Classification The dimensional approach views psychological disorders as existing on a spectrum rather than as distinct categories. Key Features: 1.​ Symptoms vary in degree, not kind – Instead of having or not having a disorder, individuals show different levels of severity (e.g., mild to severe anxiety). 2.​ No strict cutoffs – Unlike the categorical approach, disorders are seen as continuously distributed traits rather than separate conditions. 3.​ Better reflects reality – Recognizes that symptoms overlap across disorders and that people can have traits of multiple conditions. Example: ​ Instead of diagnosing “either depressed or not,” a dimensional approach would rate depression severity on a scale (e.g., mild, moderate, severe). This model is used in modern psychiatry to improve diagnosis, treatment, and research. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) has undergone several revisions to improve the classification and diagnosis of mental disorders. Here's a brief overview of the differences and key changes between the editions: 1.​ DSM-III (1980) and DSM-III-R (1987): ○​ DSM-III: Introduced a major shift towards a more empirical and systematic approach, with specific diagnostic criteria and a multiaxial system. ○​ DSM-III-R: A revision that renamed and reorganized categories, updated diagnostic criteria, and removed certain diagnoses, such as "Ego-dystonic homosexuality." 2.​ DSM-IV (1994) and DSM-IV-TR (2000): ○​ DSM-IV: Continued the empirical approach, incorporating new research findings and updating diagnostic criteria. ○​ DSM-IV-TR: A text revision that updated descriptive text for disorders without changing the diagnostic criteria, except for minor updates in nine diagnoses. 3.​ DSM-5 (2013) and DSM-5-TR (2022): ○​ DSM-5: Introduced significant changes, including the removal of the multiaxial system, reorganization of disorders, and the addition of new diagnoses. ○​ DSM-5-TR: A text revision that updated descriptive text, clarified criteria, and incorporated recent research findings. Each revision aimed to enhance the manual's clinical utility and reflect advancements in psychiatric research. Comorbidity Comorbidity refers to the presence of two or more disorders occurring together in the same person. Key Points: ​ Common in mental health (e.g., anxiety and depression often co-exist). ​ Can involve physical and psychological conditions (e.g., diabetes and depression). ​ Makes diagnosis and treatment more complex because symptoms may overlap. Chapter 4 Independent variable (IV): … may be manipulated by the researcher & thought to influence change in the dependent variable Experiment IV: ______ Dependent variable (DV): is measured & is expected to change (due to I.V.) Experiment DV: ______ A confound is an uncontrolled variable that affects both the independent and dependent variables, making it unclear whether the results are due to the intended factor or the confound. Why It’s a Problem: ​ Reduces internal validity (makes it harder to determine cause and effect). ​ Creates bias in research findings. Example: ​ A study tests if exercise improves memory, but sleep quality is not controlled. If well-rested participants perform better, it's unclear whether exercise or sleep caused the improvement. Solution: ​ Use randomization, control groups, and statistical adjustments to minimize confounds in research. Basic Components of a Research Study: Hypothesis – A testable prediction about the relationship between variables (e.g., “Exercise reduces anxiety”). Research Design – The plan or structure for conducting a study, determining how data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted (e.g., experiments, surveys, case studies). Internal Validity – The degree to which a study accurately establishes cause and effect (e.g., controlling variables to ensure the results are due to the independent variable, not other factors). External Validity – The extent to which study results can be generalized to other people, settings, or situations (e.g., if research done in a lab applies to real-life settings). -​ Testability refers to whether a hypothesis or theory can be empirically tested and measured through scientific methods. Key Features: ​ Must be observable, measurable, and falsifiable (able to be proven false if incorrect). ​ Helps ensure research is scientific and objective. Research Methods Research by Correlation Correlation: A statistical relationship between two variables. ​ Positive correlation: Higher scores on one variable tend to be associated with higher scores on the other. ​ Negative correlation: Higher scores on one variable are associated with lower scores in the other. Correlation does not imply causation! ​ Third variable problem: ○​ Example: Strong positive correlation between ice cream sales & violent crime (both may be influenced by a third factor, like hot weather). ​ Directionality problem: ○​ Example: Exercise & happiness – Does exercise make people happier, or do happier people exercise more? Correlation helps identify relationships but does not prove cause-and-effect. Statistical Significance vs. Clinical Significance 1.​ Statistical Significance ○​ Indicates whether a result is unlikely due to chance (measured by p-value, typically p < 0.05). ○​ Example: A drug reduces anxiety statistically, but the effect might be too small to matter in real life. 2.​ Clinical Significance ○​ Measures whether the result has meaningful, real-world impact on a person's well-being. ○​ Example: A therapy that reduces anxiety so much that patients can return to work and social life. Key Difference: ​ Statistical significance = "Is the effect real?" (math-based) ​ Clinical significance = "Is the effect meaningful?" (real-life impact) A treatment can be statistically significant but not clinically significant if the effect size is too small to be useful. Common Types of Effect Size: ​ Cohen’s d – Measures the difference between two groups (e.g., treatment vs. control).  ​ Pearson’s r – Measures the strength of correlation between two variables. Example: ​ A drug statistically lowers depression (p < 0.05), but if the effect size is small, the improvement might not be noticeable in real life. Effect size helps determine how meaningful a result is, not just whether it is statistically valid. Summary and Explanation of Slides on CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy) Levels of Thought These slides explain different levels of thought in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), developed by Aaron Beck, and how to challenge negative thinking patterns. 1. Automatic Thoughts (First Slide) Definition: ​ Situation-specific, unconscious thoughts that pop up in response to events. ​ Can be words, images, or memories and are the least stable thoughts. Example: ​ "Everyone will see that I am nervous." ​ "People will judge me negatively." Technique to Challenge Automatic Thoughts: ​ Thought Records – Writing down and analyzing thoughts to find patterns and reframe them logically. 2. Thought Record (Second Slide) Purpose: ​ Helps individuals identify, analyze, and challenge negative automatic thoughts systematically. Columns in the Thought Record: 1.​ Situation – The event triggering the thought. 2.​ Moods – The emotions experienced. 3.​ Automatic Thoughts – The negative thoughts that pop up. 4.​ Evidence That Supports the Thought – Any proof supporting the thought. 5.​ Evidence That Does Not Support the Thought – Contradictory evidence. 6.​ Alternative/Balanced Thoughts – A more rational way to think about the situation. 7.​ Rate Moods Now – Measuring mood after reviewing the thought. 3. Underlying Assumptions (Third Slide) Definition: ​ Deeply held beliefs that shape how we interpret the world. ​ Expressed as "If…then" or "should" statements and are more stable than automatic thoughts. Example: ​ "If I am not perfect, people will disapprove of me." Technique to Challenge Underlying Assumptions: ​ Behavioral Experiments & Role Plays – Testing these assumptions in real-life situations (e.g., learning that imperfection does not lead to rejection). 4. Core Beliefs (Fourth Slide) Definition: ​ Absolute, deeply rooted statements about self, others, and the world. ​ Most stable and least accessible level of thought. ​ Shapes perception and decision-making. Example: ​ "I am a failure." ​ "The world is a dangerous place." Techniques to Challenge Core Beliefs: ​ Core Belief Continuum – Viewing beliefs as flexible rather than absolute.  ​ Core Belief Log – Collecting daily evidence to support new, adaptive core beliefs (e.g., listing small achievements to challenge negative self-views). Final Summary: ​ CBT helps restructure thinking patterns by addressing different levels of thought. ​ Automatic thoughts → Underlying assumptions → Core beliefs (progressively deeper). ​ Techniques like thought records, behavioral experiments, and core belief logs help challenge and change negative thinking. Positive Correlation 📈 ​ When one variable increases, the other also increases, or when one decreases, the other also decreases. ​ Example: More study time → Higher grades. Negative Correlation 📉 ​ When one variable increases, the other decreases (they move in opposite directions). ​ Example: More stress → Less sleep. Correlation Coefficient (r) 🔢 ​ A number between -1.00 to +1.00 that measures the strength and direction of a correlation. ​ r = +1.00 → Perfect positive correlation. ​ r = -1.00 → Perfect negative correlation. ​ r = 0 → No correlation (no relationship between variables).