Sociological Imagination Lecture Notes PDF

Sociological Imagination -Common sense thinking vs the sociological perspective Moving beyond common sense reasoning -Experience only provide us with ‘rules of thumb’ -Folk wisdom (e.g., ‘anyone can succeed if they work hard enough’) -Sociologists take a systemic approach to study everyday l...

Sociological Imagination -Common sense thinking vs the sociological perspective Moving beyond common sense reasoning -Experience only provide us with ‘rules of thumb’ -Folk wisdom (e.g., ‘anyone can succeed if they work hard enough’) -Sociologists take a systemic approach to study everyday life Sociological imagination -C.Wright Mills (1916-1962) -The ability to see the connection between personal troubles and social structures -Awareness of the relationship between the individual and the wider society -Counter the everyday approach to understanding -Calls for reflective thinking — the question is the key Sociological perspective -Sociology: systematic study of human behaviour in social context -Study the interaction between individual and society -Social structure: relatively stable patterns of social relations. -Microstructures: Patterns of intimate social relations formed during face-to-face interaction (e.g., expectations within one’s family). -Macrostructures: overarching patterns of social relations that lie outside and above a person’s circle of intimates and acquaintances (e.g., how social class shapes opportunities). -Global structures: Patterns of social relations outside and above the national level (e.g., the impact of transnational corporations on labour) Lec 2 Sociological Theory The origins of sociology and sociological theory Sociology born out of 3 revolutions: -Scientific revolution (1550): evidence - based knowledge -The democratic Revolution(1750): discovered people control society -Industrial revolution(1780): industrialization and urbanisation created new social problems in need of solution -Together they provided: the problem, will and the way Auguste Comte(1798-1857) -Coined the term ‘sociology’ -Latin socius (“social, being with others”) and the Greek logos (“study of”) -Social statics & social dynamics -Goal: reorganisation of society -Adopted natural science model Sociology as a Social science -Natural science model criticised -Despite complications, human behaviour is patterned & predictable Sociological theory -Contemporary sociologists view of society: Stability, Competition, Symbolic interaction, Gender inequality -Theory: tentative explanation of some aspect of social life that states how and why certain facts are related Theoretical perspectives Functionalist perspective -Society = stable, orderly system characterised by societal consensus -How to maintain social order is key for understanding society -Biological analogy Talcott Parsons -Societies must make provisions for meeting social needs in order to survive -Family division of labour essential Robert Merton -Manifest & Latent Functions -Dysfunctions Conflict Perspectives -Society is not a cohesive system -It is an arena of conflict & power struggle -Instead of people working together to further the goals of society: -People are seen achieving their will at the expense of others -People compete against each other for scarce resources Karl Marx -Struggle between social classes -change -Capitalism seen as the problem -Focus = exploitation of proletariat (working class) by bourgeoisie (capitalist class) -Bourgeoisie: own and control the means of production -Proletariat: must sell their labour because they have no other means to earn a livelihood. Proletariat exploited by not being paid true value of their labour -Class consciousness – overthrow capitalists – establish free and classless society Symbolic Interactionist perspective -Focus= interaction, role of symbols -Objects have no inherit or objective meaning -Meaning developed and conveyed through symbolic interaction -Microsociological perspective Herbert Blumer (1900-1986) -Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings they have for them. -Meaning developed through social interaction. -Meaning-making is an interpretive process. G.H. Mead (1863-1931) & C.H. Cooley (1864-1929) -Notions of self are only possible through communication with others -Language common understandings Erving Goffman (1922-1982) -Dramaturgical Analysis – life is a social performance -Meaning, as it is shared, becomes relied upon and more fixed -Once people accept certain aspects in society as “real,” real consequences flow from that reality -“If people define situations as real, then they are real in their consequences.” The W. I. Thomas Theorem -Encourages us to challenge taken for granted Lec 3 Quantitative Research model -precise measurement, numbers, and statistics -Positivist tradition -Assumes social reality is objective: it exists independent of the observer -Research uses deductive reasoning: begin with general ideas and proceed to test their validity and proceed to test their validity on specific cases Step 1: Defining the problem -Provide a clear statement of what you hope to investigate -Operationalization: the process of translating concepts into variables and propositions into hypotheses Step 2: Reviewing the literature -Literature: relevant studies and information that pertains to subject you are researching -Purpose? Refines the problem under study, clarifies possible techniques to be used in collecting data, and eliminates or reduces avoidable mistakes Step 3: Formulating the hypothesis -Hypothesis: the testable form of a proposition -Variable: measure of a concept that has more than one value or score -Independent Variable: the presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship -Dependent Variable: the presumed effect in a cause-and-effect relationship -Casual logic: the relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other -Correlation: a relationship between 2 or more variables whereby a change in one coincides with a change in another Step 4: Selecting the research design -Determine how the data will be collected analysed -Decide what kind of sample will be used: -Ensure the sample is statistically representative of the population -Probability sample: every member of a population has known and nonzero chance of being selected -Random sampling assists in achieving a representative sample Step 5: Data collection -The main sociological data collection techniques include: -Experiments -Surveys -Field research -Secondary sources Step 6: Data Analysis -What does your data tell you about social life? -Interpret trends and themes; look for relationships between variables, etc. -Ensuring the validity and reliability of data: -Validity: the degree to which results reflects reality -Reliability: the degree to which procedures yield consistent results Step 7: Developing the Conclusion -Based on your analysis, what conclusions can you make? -Accepting or rejecting the hypothesis: -Sociological studies do not always generate data that support the original hypothesis Qualitative Research Model -Observation, description, and interpretation of people’s behaviour -Interpretivist tradition -Assumes social reality is intersubjectively constructed: meaning is subjectively known but influenced by others -Research uses inductive reasoning: begin with concrete cases and proceed to identify general patterns -Unique features of qualitative: -General approach vs. highly detailed plan -Description vs. explanation -Decide when the literature review and theorising should take place -Presents a detailed view of the topic Research Methods -Particular strategies or techniques for collecting data -Quantitative research methods typically — surveys and experiments -Qualitative research methods typically — field research to understand the social world from the perspective of the people being studied Experiments -Carefully controlled artificial situation that allows researchers to isolate hypothesised causes and precisely measure their effects -Subjects matched or randomly assigned to experimental group or control group -Types of experiments: laboratory, natural and field experiments Strengths and weaknesses of Experiments -Strengths -Researcher control -Time and cost effective -Replication strengthens validity and generalizability -Reliability -Weakness -Artificiality of lab setting -Subject reactivity (Hawthorne effect) -Small number of variables that can be tested Surveys -Study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, which provides information concerning how people think and act -Respondents asked identical questions -Typically very structured (standardised questions) and closed-ended questions -Strengths of surveys -Useful for describing the characteristics of a large population -Generalizability -Standardised approach = reliability -Weaknesses -Standardised questions tend to force response into categories in which they may or may not belong -Can be weak on validity -Sometimes not good for sensitive issues Field research -Study of social life in its natural setting; observing and interviewing where people live, work, and play -Qualitative Data: observations that are best described verbally rather than numerically -Purpose and snowball sampling -Observation: researcher systematically observes a social process, but does not take in it -Participant observation: collecting systematic observations while being part of the activities of the group being studied -Ethnography: detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers who may be heavily involved or live with that group for extended periods of time -In-depth Interview: extended, unstructured or semi-structured, open-ended interaction between and interviewer and an interviewee -Follows general plan of inquiry (flexible) -General or led-in questions to start interview -Key=careful listening and participantès experiences -Strengths of field research -Insider view -Social life as it takes place in natural setting -Studying social processes and change over time -Meanings people attribute to their everyday lives -Validity -Weaknesses of field research -Very involved - time consuming, demanding -Generalizability and reliability Research Ethics -Ethical considerations -Voluntary participation -Harm minimization -Right to privacy -Authenticity Lec 4 Culture and society Culture: The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behaviour -Defines what is important and unimportant, right and wrong during our interactions Society: Collective of interacting people share a culture and, usually, a territory Material vs. Non-material culture -Material culture: tools and technology that enable people to accomplish tasks -Non-material culture: symbols, norms, and other intangible and abstract elements -Cultural lag: occurs when people’s values change more slowly than their technologies do Culture as meaning generator -Concrete, physical sensations, by themselves, are meaningless -Culture gives concrete experience meaning Symbols -Anything that meaningfully represents something else -We’d have no culture without symbols -There is no meaning inherent in objects -We know the meaning of things through the use of symbols Language -Set of symbols that expresses ideas and enables people to think and communicate with one another -Sapir-Whorf Thesis: language is culturally determined and serves to influence our mode of thought -Language is our guide to reality -View of the world limited by language we have learned -Language describes and shapes reality Symbols, Meaning, and Relativity -Meanings and symbols in different objects and pictures -Varies depending on cultural context; meanings of object changes based on it Values -Ideas about what is right and wrong, good and bad, beautiful and ugly -Value Contradictions: values that conflict with one another or are mutually exclusive -Ideal Culture: values and standards of behaviour that people in a society profess to hold -Real Culture: values and standards of behaviour that people actually follow Norms -Generally accepted ways of doing things; shared rule and guidelines that govern actions -Formal norms: written down and specify certain behaviours through laws and regulations -Informal norms: unwritten standards of behaviour that are generally understood -Can be classified according to their relative social importance -Folkways: norms that specify social preferences -Mores (singular: moos): core norms that most people believe are essential for survival of their group or their society -Taboos: strongest norms; when a taboo is violated, it causes revulsion in the community, and punishment is severe -Laws: norms that are codified and enforce by the state through formal sanctions Sanctions -Penalty or reward for conduct concerning a social norm -Rewards accrue for conformity and punishment for nonconformity -Formal sanctions: clearly defined and administered by people in official positions who are given the authority to impose sanctions -Informal sanctions: not clearly defined and can be applied by any member of a group Cultural Universals -Common practice or belief found in every culture -May be universal, but the manner in which they expressed varies from culture to culture Cultural Shock and Ethnocentrism -Cultural shock: feeling of surprise and disorientation that is experienced when people witness cultural practices different from their own -Ethnocentrism: tendency for a person to judge other cultures exclusively by the standards of their own culture Cultural Relativism -Belief that all cultures have equal value -Max Weber advocates the use of ‘value-free’ Sociology -Verstehen: (German for ‘understanding’ or ‘insight’) to gain the ability to see the world as others see it Notes -Sometimes misusing and confusing them together -subs society of a subculture: mennonite -Culture; everything that humans create. Culture is very important in our society. Passed from generations. Socialisation. Born as a culturally blank state and then have culture and socialisation internalised rapidly into you. Dependent on people around you -Non-material culture is more resistant to change typically than material culture -Sharedness of your realities; symbols. Convey ideas food objects -Values of culture can change but stay relatively stable -Outward expression of shared values; norms Lec 5 Socialisation -Process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture -Nature versus nurture debate -Ex., studies on isolation -Findings point to interplay between heredity and environment -Epigenetics — interrelationship between genes and environment Self and socialization -Symbolic Interactionist perspective most influential theoretical perspective in informing understanding of socialization -Self: consists of your ideas and attitudes about who you are as an independent being -Process occurring at all stages of life The looking-Glass Self -Charles Horton Cooley -We learn who we are by interacting with others -Process of developing a sense of self: -We imagine how we appear to others -We imagine how others evaluate us -We develop a feeling about ourselves such as respect or shame as a result of these impressions Mead’s stages of development -Stages of the self (George herbert Mead) -Preparatory stage: birth-2 years old; imitates others -Significant others: people who play important roles in the early socialization experiences of children -Play stage: 2-6 years old; pretends to be other people -Role taking: the process of mentally assuming the perspective of another, thereby enabling the person to respond from that imagined viewpoint -Game stage: 7 years old; considers several tasks and relationships simultaneously -Generalized other: a person’s image of cultural standards and how they apply to their sense of self Presentation of Self -Erving Goffman -Impression management: altering of the presentation of the self in order to create distinctive appearances and to satisfy particular audiences -Face work: efforts of people to maintain the proper image and avoid embarrassment in public -Ex., ex-politicians’ discussion of political defeat Socialization through the Life Course -Socialization is a continuous process -Primary socialization: childhood socialization within the family -Little control; no or little prior exposure to culture. Most important and significant changes -Secondary socialization: learning that occurs after primary socialization and influenced by other agents of socialization (ex, friend, teachers) -Greater control; less significant changes. Self-seeking behavior Rites of passage -Rituals marking the symbolic transition from one social position to another -Can be formal or informal; private or public -Each status change leads to new rules, roles, and relationships -Social devaluation: situation in which a person or group is considered to have less social value than other individuals or groups Aging and society -Age is socially significant because it defines what is appropriate for an expected of people at various stages of life -Status-based relativity —what’s deemed normal at one age, might not be seen as normal at another -Chronological vs. functional age -The social reality of aging differs for men and women Anticipatory socialization -Beginning to take on the norms and behaviors of the roles to which we aspire -Ex., high school students preparing for uni by looking into academic programs, thinking about careers to follow, and reading about the university experience -Typically associated with adolescence Resocialization -Process in which powerful socializing agents deliberately cause rapid change in people’s values, roles, and self-conception, sometimes against their will -Voluntary when we assume a new status out of own free will -May involve psychological or medical treatment or religious conversion -Ex, alcoholics Anonymous -Involuntary resocialization occurs against a person’s wishes and generally take place within a total institution Total institutions -Settings in which people are isolated from larger society and are under strict control and constant supervision of a specialized staff -All aspects of life are conducted in the same place and are under the control of a single authority -Any activities within the institution are conducted in the company of others in the same circumstances -The authorities devise rules and schedule activities without consulting the participants -Because the total institution is generally cute from the rest of society, it provides for all the need of its members -Individuality is often lost in total institutions -Degradation ceremony: aspect of the socialization process within total institutions, in which people are subjected to humiliating rituals Notes: -Socialization is ongoing in a person’s life; social learning process. Learning border culture from your parents and also learning the sub-culture. It is important. Transmission of one culture from generation to the next. Continuation of a given society and culture -looking-glass self: The social mirror makes us who we are as individuals. There would be no sense of self without the feedback from others -Game stage continues food life -Goffman was canadian; developing lines of action and how we influence other and how others do the same; front and backstage sense of self - Social construction of Reality -Process by which our perception of reality is shaped largely by the intersubjective meaning that we give to an experience -We give meaning to the world through our interactions we see the world not as it is but as we are -We interact within a predefined social structure to develop understandings of reality -Ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power within a society Social Interaction -Process by which role performers act in relation to others -Involves communication among people acting and reacting to one another, either face-to-face or via technology -Mediated interaction: communication that uses technologies to send and receive messages Social Structure -Stable patterns of social relations -Organises social environments into predictable relationships -Provides a framework for interaction -Create order Statuses -Culturally defined position or social location -Involves rights, duties, expectations -Status Set: all the statuses a person has at a given time -Ascribed Status: social position imposed on a person at birth; related to a characteristic that is impossible or extremely difficult to change -Achieved status: that a person acquires thorough their efforts and choices Master Status -Social position that a person considers central to their social identity -Supersedes all other statuses -Master statuses confer high or low levels of personal worth and dignity on people — judgements Status Cues -Visual indicators of other people’s social position -Pride in status — use visible means to let others know about their position -Status cues announces our accomplishments and facilitate our interactions with others Roles -Clusters of expectations about thoughts, feelings, and actions appropriate for occupants of a particular status -Whereas we occupy a status, we play a role -Role-playing: behaviour that involves conforming to existing performance expectations -Role–making: creative process by which individuals generate role expectations and performances -Role Ambiguity: occurs when the expectations associated with a role are unclear -Role set: Various roles attached to a single status (ex. student(status) roles; studying, reading -Role conflict: Incompatibility among roles corresponding to 2 or more different statuses (ex. Mother’s role conflict with being a employee) -Role strain: Incompatibility among roles corresponding to a single status (ex. Prof roles; teaching + publishing) Role Exit -Process of disengagement from a role that is central to self-identity and reestablishment of an identity in a new role -Stages of role exit: doubt, search for alternatives, action or departure, creation of a new identity -Can be voluntary or involuntary, public or private Self-fulfilling Prophecy -Expectation that helps bring about it predicts -Status label — role expectations — can become internalised and ‘real’ -Can be in either a positive or negative direction Ethnomethodology -Harold Garfinkel -Study of how people make sense of what others do and say by adhering to pre-existing norms -Background expectancies: people’s shared interpretation of objects and events, as well as their resulting actions -Breaching experiment: break presumed background expectancies of the situation to observe people’s responses Notes -Social construction of reality -social interaction enables your interaction with people; rely for order in the world -Your agency being strained bu social structure -The way you see your reality is not entirely objective -Herbert: A key aspect of social life is that we create meaning during our interaction with other people. Stimulus, interpretation, and response -Social structure being embedded into society -Negotiating meaning in social interaction