A Level Sociology Unit 1 - Socialisation, Identity, and Methods of Research PDF

S A Level Sociology Unit 1 - Socialisation, Identity, and Methods of Research Page | 1 In this unit you will be studying: 1. The Importance of Socialisation. 2. Research Methods used within Sociology. Page | 2 Sociological Perspectives can be Categorised as Either Consensus or Conflict Theories In Consensus theories, it is believed that society works in agreement and that shared goals and outcomes maintain social order. Functionalism (description coming up!) fits into this category. In Conflict theories, as the name suggests, the opposite is assumed. Society is ordered and operated by a dominant group, which controls and manipulates subordinate/lower-level groups. Society is ordered by social hierarchy. Marxism and Feminist approaches (descriptions coming up!) fall into this category. As a starting point, theories stem from a structuralist or interactionalist approach. The structuralist approach is concerned with prioritising the wider frameworks of society, over the actions of individuals. So, it might, for example, look at how the education system and crime and punishment systems affect an individual’s behaviour. Information for such would be obtained from large-scale sources, the Office for National Statistics (ONS) for example. You may be wondering what the Office for National Statistics is, or you may already know. Look here; https://www.ons.gov.uk/ Page | 3 Sociologists from a structuralist perspective, see people and their behaviour in society, as the outcome or products of social factors and groupings. Example structural categories include gender, class, ethnicity, culture, job role and relationships with others. An individual’s actions are a result of social factors and social groupings rather than because of the individual having free agency and choice over their actions. At the extreme end of the scale, a structuralist sociologist might see society as ‘telling’ people what to do and how to act. Applying this to contemporary society and the Covid-19 pandemic, we can see how wider societal structures have affected individuals’ behaviour and why the call for structural reform to fix fundamental problems, post-pandemic is required. Key theories from a structuralist perspective include Functionalism, Marxism and Feminism. Page | 4 Functionalism Functionalism is often referred to as the first sociological perspective (theory), and due to this the perspective is often criticised for being outdated and non-inclusive, with many critics suggesting functionalist theory has a ‘one size fits all’ approach to society. We will come to this later, but keep this in the front of your mind as you work through the course as you can use this as a limitation. Functionalism offers a very positive approach towards the importance of society, believing it has an innate aim to work towards the greater good. Functionalists explain this innate good of society through the importance of social institutions and their roles; although, functionalism does ignore societal differences, with norms and values varying for each different society. When discussing norms and values, functionalism fails to explore why individuals go against them, instead only discussing how society reacts to the so-called ‘deviant behaviour.’ Page | 5 It is important to be aware of key thinkers for each sociological perspective. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) is often described as the founding father of functionalism. Durkheim was particularly interested in how social change occurs through focusing on how society adapted from being a pre-industrial society to a modern society. Durkheim argued that any significant or major change to society would result in making society unstable. According to him, during the pre-industrial stage the division of labour was straightforward, so there was social cohesion, with a sense of collective identity built upon the shared norms and values. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) developed a concept in which he compared society to the human body to show how society functions. This is called ‘the organic analogy.’ He described how various aspects of society such as education, religion, and the family are interrelated and made up of different institutions and just like parts of the body, they also have their own function. Page | 6 A further leading functionalist is Talcott Parsons (1902-79), an American sociologist who, inspired by the development of conservatism, took on the functionalist values. He agreed with Spencer’s organic analogy and understood the significant role of the family, suggesting it is fundamental; through socialisation within the family, individuals learn society’s norms and values, which in turn leads to them conforming to them. To ensure conformity is ongoing, Parsons stressed the importance of education, religion, and the media to maintain this. He argued that through such social control, good behaviour is rewarded and people will continue to conform to the norms of society, whilst those who deviate have sanctions in place such as stigmatisation. Parsons identified four basic needs in society. These are referred to as functional prerequisites. These are: 1. Adaption (The Economic Function): To survive every society must have some degree of control over their environment. This is met by the economy. 2. Goal Attainment (The Political Function): All societies must develop ways of making decisions and they must set goals towards which social activity is directed. This requires a political system and a legal system. Page | 7 3. Integration (Social Harmony): This refers to ways of limiting conflict in society. The law is the main institution that meets this need. 4. Latency (Pattern Maintenance): This refers to the ‘maintenance’ of the basic patterns of values in society, usually taught through socialisation. Institutions that perform this function include the Family, Education System and Religion. Functionalist Robert K Merton (1968) made several important criticisms of Parsons. He rejected the argument that all parts of a social system work together. Instead, such links do not necessarily exist. Merton also believed that there is no necessary basis for Parsons’ arguments that all elements of society work together to benefit the whole. Merton challenged the assumption that all aspects of the social system have a positive function. He identified dysfunctions within society. Merton’s ideas are valuable because of the focus on dysfunctions. These refer to aspect of social activity which tend to produce changes because they threaten social order. Page | 8 To look at the dysfunctional aspects of social behaviour means focusing on features of social life which challenge the order of society. For example, Merton argues that it is a mistake to assume that religion is always functional, that it always contributes to social order. When two groups follow different religions, or different views within the same religion, the result can end in conflict. Functionalism has been Criticised by All Main Theories According to Parsons, Functionalism portrays society in perfect harmony and without conflict. Marxists argue that this is not true. You only have to view what is happening in the UK in terms of poverty and the wars that happen in the world to know that this may not be fully accurate. Functionalism is also classed as an unscientific discipline. A scientific theory is one which can attempt to be disproven by testing. However, as Functionalism believes the concept of deviance is something that is both functional and dysfunctional to society, it cannot be disproved and so therefore is unscientific. Page | 9 The picture of a consensual society is far from accurate. There are many societies in which there is no shared value consensus, yet they retain some degree of stability. According to feminists functionalist ideas ignore the position of women in society and consign them to traditional roles such as being the housewife and the mother. It is therefore supportive of the ‘status quo,’ which is a patriarchal society according to feminists. Page | 10 Functionalism is a very conservative approach. It assumes that all agree with the goals and values of society. It also explains how the existing order works and justifies it by arguing that whatever social institutions exist must do so because they have a function to perform. Functionalism ignores the power of some to impose their goals and values on society and offers no solution for reforming or criticising the social system. Interactionists argue that Parsons has an over-deterministic view of human nature, making people seem like puppets without any personality or free will of their own. Postmodernists suggest that functionalism is irrelevant today there is now a diversity of views in terms of society and religion. Marxism Sees everything in society as a conflict. For this theory, there is a struggle between those who own the means of production (the bourgeoisie) and those who don’t (the proletariat). Marxism is an ideology established by Karl Marx (1818-1883). Marx was not only a sociologist but also a philosopher and economist, he spent much of his time in Manchester where he saw firsthand how different parts of society were treated through the development of capitalism. The Communist Manifesto was written with Fredrich Engels at Cheetham Library in Manchester. Find Out More Here: https://library.chethams.com/collections/101-treasures-of- chethams/karl-marxs-desk/ Marx was a major opponent of capitalism, both as an economic system and due to the conditions the proletariat lived and worked in. He believed capitalism deepens class struggle. He noted that the bourgeoisie owned the workplaces, such as factories – coining the phrase ‘means of production’ to describe this and concluded that the owners of the workplaces exploited their workforce by employers paying them less than the value of their labour – allowing for an increase in profits for the bourgeoisie. Marx saw profit as the ‘engine of capitalism.’ Marx stressed that the reason the proletariat accepts the situation is because of ‘false class consciousness.’ This means that workers are coerced into accepting their situation by the bourgeoisie, causing them to believe that they are both getting a fair deal. Page | 11 The Superstructure: This is the social structure of society including the education system, political system and so forth. These institutions pass on the ideas of the ruling class to the workers who accept them. Ruling class dominance is confirmed in these institutions. Alienation Alienation is in all class societies because owners control the production process for their own needs. However, under capitalism, alienation reaches its peak for two reasons: Workers are separate from and have no control over the forces of production. The Division of Labour is at its Most Intense and Detailed: The worker is reduced to an unskilled labourer mindlessly repeating a meaningless task. Page | 12 Revolution and Communism However, Marx argued that this situation could not be permanent. The subject class will eventually become conscious of the true nature of the situation. They will become a ‘class for itself.’ They will become aware that they are being exploited and aware of a common enemy. When this happens, they will unite and overthrow the ruling class. Communism: A communist society will then come into existence. A communist society is characterised by: Communal ownership of the means of production. The products of labour will no longer be taken by some at the expense of others. Humans will produce for themselves and others – not just for the ruling class. There will be no classes and therefore, no conflict or contradictions. Gramsci (1937) was aware that the working classes in most European countries had not risen and overthrown the ruling classes. Therefore, Gramsci attempted to explain why Marxist revolutions had not taken place in Western Europe. Hegemony: Gramsci argued that revolutions had not taken place in Western Europe because of hegemony. This refers to the consent given by the masses to the type of society imposed on them by the dominant groups in society. Gramsci argued that capitalist rule does not depend solely on force, but also involves the active consent of the population through ideas in society. In other words, the ruling class must actively win support from other members of society. The main way of doing this was to give the subject class real concessions. meaningful changes or improvements in their lives Gramsci argues that to change society the Marxist struggle must also include a cultural and ideological struggle. The struggle should not simply be confined to the economic system. Gramsci’s ideas are useful in that they help to explain why revolutions in Western Europe did not take place. He suggests that the hegemony of the ruling class was far more rooted in Western Europe than in Russia (where there was a communist revolution in 1917). Page | 13 Marcuse then went on to develop Critical theory which is based on Gramsci’s ideas. This argues that: Capitalism has destroyed the critical thought that is needed to challenge the capitalist system. Marcuse refers to this as ‘repressive tolerance.’ Economic affluence has stripped the working class of its identity and made it unable to undertake a communist revolution. This is characterised by a ‘one dimensional culture.’ Modern Western societies claim to be tolerant and have freedom of expression that allows the formation and communication of many kinds of ideas. However, Marcuse argues that this tolerance is a form of control. If capitalism tolerates and accepts different ideas, then this will reduce any revolutionary determination amongst the population. Marcuse argued that Western societies are characterised by a ‘one-dimensional culture.’ The media creates a false culture to distract the masses and to create false needs. This serves to prevent thoughts of revolutionary acts. Instead, the subject classes are obsessed with trivia and gossip. They would rather keep up with popular culture than develop a revolutionary insight into their social circumstances and ways of achieving freedom. Althusser (1918-1990) argues that human beings have no free will. Instead, a range of structures control human society. He argues that a capitalist society has three structures or levels – the economic level, the political level, and the ideological level. The economic level dominates capitalism, but the ideological and political levels perform indispensable functions. For example, if capitalism is to continue, future workers must be socialised corrected and rebellious workers punished. Althusser divides the state into two apparatuses: The Repressive State Apparatus: These agencies such as the army, police, and prisons that coerce the workers into complying with the will of the bourgeoisie. Page | 14 The Ideological State Apparatus: These include the media, education system, family and so forth who manipulate the working class into accepting capitalism and legitimacy. What distinguishes Althusser from Gramsci? Althusser argues that free will is an illusion. Society is deterministic. Individuals are passive and victims of ideological exploitation beyond their control. This is in contrast with Gramsci, who argues that a socialist revolution will come about because of the working class actively developing class consciousness and consciously choosing to overthrow capitalism. Page | 15 Feminism This theory looks at society in relation to women’s positions within society and suggests that male domination (patriarchy) is to blame for female inequality. Feminism consists of varying schools of thought in which the male dominance is opposed. We refer to male dominance within society. Feminists advocate for the rights of females. There are a range of different types of feminists, all of whom approach the issues in different ways. Feminism can also be divided into four or five waves that span from the late 19th century to the present day. Feminist thought has often only looked at men and women. With fourth and fifth wave feminism, many sociologists are now including people of all genders in research. Liberal feminism is one of the forms of feminism. It engages with laws with the goal that men and women have the same legal rights. Many laws have been passed in the UK such as: the Equal Franchise Act (1928), Divorce Reform Act (1969) and Sex Discrimination Act (1975). However, critics and liberal feminists alike will agree more has to be done, with the gender pay gap still existing in the UK amongst other gender-based inequalities. Betty Friedan (1921-2006) was a leader in liberal feminist thought, her most notable work The Feminine Mystique showcased how many women (in 1950s America) couldn’t recall a positive female role model who both worked and had a family. Friedan lobbied for female equality breaking into the male-dominated world of politics to combat gender inequality. Another perspective in feminism, radical feminism, argues that the end of the patriarchy and, thus, restructuring of society is the answer to ensure women’s rights. Radical feminists disagree with liberal feminism’s approach, believing the legal approach to be too weak and unable to dismantle the patriarchy. Such theorists, like Shulamith Firestone (1945-2012), believed biology to be the main cause of gender inequality. Firestone, in her book The Dialect of Sex, stated that contraception has eased gender inequality as it allowed women control over their body’s functions with her viewing pregnancy and motherhood as something that hinders women’s equality in society. Page | 16 As with Marxism’s theory on capitalist exploitation, Marxist feminism theory believes that women are exploited both equally by the patriarchy and capitalism. Marxist feminists focus especially on how capitalism utilises the family to exploit women and ensure profits for the bourgeoisie. Margaret Benston (1937-1991) illustrated this view well in her research by expanding the Marxist ‘reserve army of labour’ theory, Benston believed that women are an unpaid workforce who care for employed husbands and raise future workers – with this upkeep of the family, wives and mothers ensure capitalism continues its profits. Difference feminism is seen as quite a controversial strand of feminism due to its opinion that men and women do not need to be considered equal. Carol Gilligan (b.1936) is the most prominent difference feminist. Her theory being that men and women are so different they need not to be equal. Gilligan coined the phrase ‘ethic of care’ to describe how she believes women’s femininity causes women to have a different moral stance to men, with women prioritising relationships and emotions rather than men’s priority of justice when it comes to ethical issues. Critics suggest that difference feminism is a regressive theory as it reinforces traditional gender stereotypes and goes as far as to say that difference feminism does nothing to protect women from the patriarchy, having a ‘boys will be boys’ approach to the inequality women face. Race, class, and gender have a massive impact on how society treats someone, Black feminism argues that working-class, black women are the most discriminated against in society, even within the entire feminist movement. Feminism has often catered primarily to white women with the movement failing to recognise or care for the issues black women face; an example of this being second wave feminism (specifically liberal feminists) having distant support for the civil rights movement, and not engaging with black feminists who faced racism on top of sexism – Gloria Steinem’s weak support for Shirley Chisholm’s candidacy for presidency, a candidacy in which Chisholm held two firsts: The first African American to run for a major party’s presidential nomination. The first woman to run for the Democratic Party’s presidential nomination, exemplifies this. Bell Hooks (1952-2021) was a leading Black feminist; her theories revolve around how Black women are both perceived and made to be perceived. Page | 17 Hooks believed that Black women are seen as having the lowest status in society due to their ethnicity and gender; she argued that this was not a recent occurrence, but a continuation of the slave trade's historical racism and abhorrent treatment of Black women. Further elaborating, Hooks states that the media has upheld this perception of Black women due to the racist and patriarchal control over it, with white, upper-class men seeking to maintain power and indoctrinating society to view them as the most favourable members of society. It has been argued that we have moved into an era of Post feminism. This refers to the belief that the earlier gender battles have been won meaning gender equality has been achieved. Therefore, it has been argued that feminism may no longer be relevant today: There has been a marked improvement in the economic and social position of women through equal pay and a rise in the access to employment. Many women refuse to associate themselves with feminism. It was also argued that feminism was in danger of taking things ‘too far.’ Some feminists were having to search desperately for ‘trivial definitions of victimhood’ such as being complimented on their appearance or having doors opened for them. However, many feminists believe that feminism is still as relevant today in the 21st century as it was back in the 1960/70s. Susan Faludi (1992) argues that there has been a backlash of feminism. For example, women’s rights have been blamed for many problems in society such as increases in lone parent families and confusion over gender roles. This backlash simply represents an attempt by men to reassert their dominance. Natasha Walter (1998) argues that feminism is still relevant because women still experience structural and legal inequalities such as earning less than men and experience the glass ceiling due to maternity leave. Walter argues that feminism should be termed ‘equality’ feminism.’ Women should have formal and material equality with men, and she believes that most women want this. Katherine Winer (1999) argues that many of the older issues that woman faced are still relevant today. She argues that many aspects of women’s personal lives remain political. For Maple women are still judged more harshly if they have many sexual partners or commit crimes that go against their gender roles (e.g., child abuse). Page | 18 Germaine Greer (1999) argues that aiming for equality is not enough. She outlines that despite a growth in legislation, women still face oppression so ‘what do women want to be equal to?’ – As not everything is perfect for men in society either! The Interactionist Approach The interactionalist approach has the individual based more so at the forefront and believes that society is based upon the interactions of the people in it. It is more concerned with looking at the interaction or relationship between people and how those conditions behave. Meaning it is the driving force behind how people act towards others/situations. Relating this approach to the contemporary issue of Covid-19, we may find that for some individuals, living through the pandemic had a negative effect, in contrast, there will be those individuals for whom it had a positive effect, without talking to individuals about their own, unique experiences, we are unable to get the full picture. The interactionalist approach, therefore, is not interested in statistical data, but of the thoughts, feelings, and opinions of individuals. Page | 19 Symbolic interactionalism and social action theory are the main perspectives that come from the interactionalist perspective. Interactionists view humans as having agency. This means that members of society interpret everything in different ways, thus creating their own meanings to everything around them. Thinking Point: How are your views different to your friends or even members of your family? Below are some key thinkers from this perspective: Max Weber (1864-1920) had a great interest in how individuals experience divisions within society. His early research recognised that small-scale interactions along with social structures are important influencers of human behaviour. Weber focused on individuals, especially the creation of the concept ‘verstehen’ (understanding), was ground-breaking. He influenced future sociologists to scale down research and establish interactionism as a sociological perspective. Another important contributor to interactionism was George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), Mead is often seen as the person responsible for the interactionist theory. Mead developed the concept of ‘the self.’ This idea argues that our self-image and self-awareness are created through interactions with others. Mead’s beliefs on ‘the self’ are heavily inspired by Cooley’s ‘looking-glass self’ a concept of human nature. The looking-glass self is a phrase by Charles Cooley (1902) used to describe how our social identity depends on how we appear to others within our small social groups and to those that we do not know. He based this theory on observations of social development within childhood. Herbert Blumer (1900-1987) coined ‘symbolic interactionism’ and is often credited as the main creator of establishing interactionism as an actual theory. He was taken seriously as he created ways of studying ‘the self.’ According to Blumer, when studying human behaviour, we must study how people interact as individuals within society. Blumer is of the opinion that every interaction is different, an example being that how one person experiences a social institution like education is different to how any other person will experience it. Page | 20 The best way to remember or understand key interactionist ideas is to apply our knowledge of labelling. The Definition of The Situation: We take a situation that we believe to be true and by doing so, we react accordingly. For example, a teacher labelling a badly behaved pupil will cause that teacher to treat that pupil differently from others. The Looking Glass Self: A self-fulfilling prophecy can occur as we become ourselves how others see us. Career: The process of labelling can lead to a master status and then on to a deviant career or the development of mental illness. Whilst labelling can be seen as deterministic, Goffman applied the idea that we have autonomy and the ability to be voluntaristic and shape our own ‘self’ by manipulating other people’s impressions of us. We are all social actors and aim to carry off a convincing performance of the role we have embraced. This is known as a dramaturgical analogy. Goffman links this to the concept of ‘impression management’ where we seek to present ourselves in a particular light to others, be it through our tone, language and how we dress. Goffman therefore argues that we are not really the roles in which we play. The roles we are assigned in society are loosely scripted and we therefore have freedom in how we want to play them (for example some fathers are strict, some are easy going etc.). Activity What factors do you think influence individual experiences of education? Page | 21 Postmodernism This theory looks at the postmodern world exploring issues such as Globalisation, Consumerism, mass media and choice. The postmodern approach occurred after the period of ‘modernisation,’ which was primarily an industrial revolution, which made things like transport more easily accessible to people. The period of postmodernity now sees society connected on a mass scale, with easy access to the internet. People in society can access a wide variety of choices easily (supporting consumerism) and can be part of global culture, in comparison to prescribed native ones. People are free to pick and choose (pick and mix). The decline in religion (secularisation) permits fluidity (flexibility) in society. Postmodernism distances itself from the conflict/consensus and micro/macro labels, believing that such labels are purely a modern form of division. Postmodernism Postmodernists argue that the objectivity and truth of modernity are no more ‘true’ or ‘real’ than the picture previously painted before modernity (where tradition and religion played a more important part). As such, postmodernists are critical of modern sociological theories and methods particularly, Functionalism and Marxism. They believe there is no such thing as ‘objective truth.’ Instead, they argue that there are just competing ways of looking at the world (this is known as relativity). The objective, scientific analysis of Functionalism and Marxism does not produce knowledge about the world, they just term us a relative version of society. Postmodernists point out that presenting ideas as ‘objective truth’ can mean that those ideas or knowledge result in power. During modernity, scientists, professionals and academics would fight to have their knowledge and ideas as accepted by society and as the truth, thus allowing them to gain power as they formed a ‘grand theory.’ Page | 22 Foucault used the medical profession as a demonstration of ‘truth equating to power.’ The medical profession gained control over the task of healing and defining what is or what is not a healthy body. The knowledge of the doctor is not objective or the ‘truth’ – it has simply just been accepted by society and the medical profession has the power to control that knowledge. One way of doing this is to label competing ways of dealing with health and illness as ‘alternative therapies’ and ‘complementary medicines. Page | 23 Activity Check your understanding of the key terms associated with postmodernism. You should have a definition for each: Globalisation: Consumerism: Mass media: Global culture: Activity Give https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abuxXCUhuSg a watch 😊 and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dP5FkrTg-VI This will help develop your understanding of the key terms that we have looked at during this unit. Page | 24 The New Right Perspective This is more of a political viewpoint, which affects sociological perspectives by informing social policy. Policy, for example, about education, or policies which impact families. The new right is a perspective that holds very traditional views about what is right or wrong in society. A key sociological thinker linked to this approach is Charles Murray. We will begin to explore this approach more, where relevant to the topics covered. Phew! What a lot of information you have come in to contact with at this early stage. Having a good grasp of theory at the start is great, as it will make its application to the sociological topics we will be exploring a lot easier. You will cover the theories in further depth during the course. Agencies of socialisation and social control, including family, education, peer group, media, and religion. In this section, you will focus on the relationship between the individual and society. You will also learn how social control ensures order is maintained through concepts such as socialisation, culture, identity, and power, You will explore contrasting viewpoints of the relationship between the individual and society. Page | 25 The Process of Learning and Socialisation Who do we become who we are? What a philosophical question, but for some, the answer lies in socialisation, culture, and identity. The short video explains what we mean by the term socialisation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2K-zTQRdGCU So, you can see that socialisation is a pivotal part of sociological study. There are key parts/ concepts that are particularly important. These are included below: Primary Socialisation: Primary means first, so the first aspects of socialisation (how one should behave in society) come from our parents/ caregivers as a child. The baby/ child’s immediate family teach them the norms for behaviour in society. Secondary Socialisation: Secondary socialisation usually occurs when a child starts to attend an educational establishment, such as school regularly, or for an adult, secondary socialisation occurs in the workplace. You will often hear sociologists talk about 'Agents of Socialisation'. This term covers systems that can force social norms upon us. Examples include the media, the legal system, religion, and education, to name a few. These agents of socialisation, also typically act as agents of social control, by penalising deviant (unwanted) behaviour. Activity Can you come up with how these agents of socialisation help us understand the norms and values within our society? How do the same agents of socialisation penalise unwanted behaviour that goes against society’s norms and values? the agents of socialization serve as actors that we observe the behaviour of, we see if what they are doing or saying is rewarded or punished, and we then decide to mimick this behaviour or not. some ways that agents of socialization punish deviant behaviour is by stigmatizing it or punishing it with the law for example. Page | 26 Secondary Socialisation Secondary socialisation refers to the process of learning norms, values, and beliefs outside of the family home. As children get older, numerous agents of socialisation play a significant role in their perception of what happens in society and the role that they and others play. In this section, we will focus on the most important agents of secondary socialisation. Formal education and secondary socialisation. The education system has two important functions: 1. Formal Curriculum: Learning through an academic curriculum that leads to obtaining qualifications that are used by employers to place people into appropriate jobs. 2. The Hidden Curriculum: These are informal norms and attitudes that are learned via the rules within schools that correspond to the workplace. This includes respecting authority, attending all lessons, being on time, and wearing appropriate clothing. There are sanctions in place if these rules are not adhered to. You will cover education as a method of control in more detail in the Education unit of this course. It is important to use the study notes from that section. Page | 27 The Workplace as an Agent of Secondary Socialisation The workplace is another important socialiser. Suzman (2018) sees work as ‘the social glue that holds societies together’ (Suzman, 2018). It is said that we spend most of our adult life at work and socialising with people outside of our family circle. This influences our sense of who we are, our social status and our identity. Work teaches young people especially to be disciplined and satisfied in their work. However, this may not be the case if you are carrying out repetitive work, even though with this comes the accomplishment of earning money to provide for the family. The norms and values that are learned through work may be dependent upon the social class that you belong to. Middle class jobs are valued more within society because of the training and qualifications needed. This is usually renumerated in throughthe pay received promotion in comparison and salary increases, to lowly work teaches you topaid zero-hour go above contracted and beyond and to show workers. enthusiasm and hard work in your jo the possibility of being rewarded with more money or by climbing the work ladder. another way in which work teaches us norms and is through the workplace setting and the establishement of HR departments to control the employees and encourage social and go Exam Preparation: Try it! behavior towards other as well as punishing deviant behavior. Describe two ways in which work teaches you norms and values. (4 marks) Religion as an Agent of Secondary Socialisation Up to the end of the 20th Century, religion played an important part in socialisation in Western societies, and this could be seen in high levels of church goers. Hervieu-Leger (2000) suggested that this started to decline in the 2nd century as religious teaching in schools was not as prominent as we moved to a more secular society. Instead of religious teachings being passed down within extended families, parents encourage their children to make their own decisions. However, secular socialisation outside of Europe does not appear to be on the same level. According to research by Sandbrook (2012) there has been a steady increase in religious socialisation of children encouraged to believe in the literal interpretation of the Bible by rejecting scientific explanations of the world. This can be seen in the recent Roe V Wade case. An examination of religion in a global context suggest that religious belief systems such as Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism continue to exert great influence over the socialisation of children and young adults. Wooldridge and Micklethwait (2010) suggests that in non-Western societies, religion is probably the most influential source of socialisation. Religions such as Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism teach children to be humanitarian and altruistic. Page | 28 Critics of religion argue that it teaches intolerance of other religious beliefs, segregation with some being highlighted for the oppression and exploitation of females. The Media as an Agency of Secondary Socialisation Some sociologists, such as Postman (1985), have argued that the media is possibly the main socialiser today and is more influential than the family. As the media has many forms (print, visual, social) it can reach a range of audiences and has a significant influence on the type of social values and norms acquired by both children and adults. You will learn more in Unit 4 about the role that the media plays in shaping opinions. One major area to consider is how the media portrays females. The media shows women as housewives who juggle work, childcare and consumerism (Tunstall, 2000) and are in need of help to improve their bodies (Wolf, 1990). Worryingly, there is increasing evidence that shows a negative impact of social media on the mental health of young people and is not isolated to any one country that has accessible technology (Twenge, 2014, Young Minds 2022). Exam Preparation: Try it: Describe two ways that the media shapes our norms and values. (4 marks) the media shapes our norms and values by feeding us targeted content with, oftentimes, underlying political content that we assimilate and inernalyze, shaping our values and our mindsets. another way in which the media does that by shwoing us content of other people with a Culture certain behaviour, eventually, due to overexposition to certain behaviours, we emulate this behaviour, making it part of our set of norms. Culture can be seen as the social behaviour of people within a given society. Culture and socialisation go hand in hand, in shaping the norms for behaviour. Using The Video Below, how Would Describe Culture: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=UKpxfMCUAhE&list=PLCY2ejJEGr4E0XWHnu-WBtSNK15q5leDM Page | 29 Sociologists see the study of identity as important as we all have our very own, unique identity; just like our fingerprints. Our identity can be shaped by agents of socialisation and our interactions with others. Key aspects include the separation of our individual identity and our social identity. Parts of our identity are given to us (ascribed) without any choice, while others are chosen (achieved). This Video Explains The Concept in a Little More Detail: Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5kP3s5ZBs0&pbjreload=101 Beliefs Cultural beliefs may be driven by religions or traditions. In countries such as Bahrain and Brunei where there are monarchies have cultural beliefs that are driven by religion and traditions. Beliefs are strong principles that we hold. Different cultures have their own beliefs. For example, in the USA, members of that society are encouraged to believe in the ‘American Dream’ where everything is possible. Language Language is a core part of culture. We think and speak in language, so it is integral to being to be able to communicate with our kin as it promotes a sense of belonging. Symbolic Cultural Artefacts Cultural artefacts include flags, dress, monuments and things such as sport, music, and food help us identify cultures and countries too. Sport is a useful example of a culture war. For example, in cricket, there are battles between England and Australia for the Ashes. However, this goes deeper as Marxist CLR James suggests. Again, using cricket, there is a link between the sport and imperialism. James questions why there is such a love for the game when The West Indies, Pakistan, and India were colonies. However, it will provide great pride and cultural satisfaction when they win over England. High Culture High culture, also known as elite or fine culture, encompasses artistic and intellectual expressions that are thought of as being superior quality, complexity, and refinement. It is typically associated with cultural products and activities Page | 30 favoured by the educated, wealthy, and socially privileged segments of society. High culture includes various forms of art, literature, classical music, theatre, ballet, opera, and other expressions that require a certain level of intellectual or specialized knowledge to fully appreciate. Mass Culture Mass culture also referred to as popular culture or pop culture, refers to cultural products and phenomena that are created and distributed for a large, mainstream audience. Mass culture is often associated with commercialism and is heavily influenced by the media and entertainment industries. It includes elements like blockbuster movies, mainstream music, television shows, celebrity culture, best-selling novels, and trends that have wide appeal and are accessible to a broad audience. Values Values are fundamental beliefs and principles that guide and shape an individual's attitudes, behaviours, and judgments. They are deeply ingrained and act as a compass for making decisions and navigating life. Values play a significant role in shaping a person's identity and influencing their interactions with others and the world around them. Norms Norms are rules and expectations that guide and control behaviour within a society or a social group. They are the unwritten guidelines that define what is considered acceptable, appropriate, or proper in various social situations. Social Differentiation, Power, and Stratification Social differentiation is about how society is divided into different groupings, for example: rich and poor. This relates to social class, which can be ranked (stratified), for example: into the categories of upper, middle, and working class. Power relates to a group's position in this hierarchy and the position of power that they hold in society. Social mobility is the ability to move freely through the class system, based on achieved statuses, such as job roles. In some societies, this is possible, in others, your class is ascribed at birth. Page | 31 One way in which power can be displayed is through formal social control. Formal social control is enforced by agents who have the power to punish. Examples of this include the police and the courts who rely on written rules in the form of laws and legislation. Punishments can come in the form of fines and prison sentences amongst others. Informal social control relies on the use of positive and negative sanctions, such as parents putting in place a consequence for not following family rules as well as positive sanctions such as buying sweets as a way to get their children to obey the rules. Both structure and agency shape the relationship between the individual and society. This is achieved through sanctions and expectations. Social Identity and Change Identity How do we develop our identity? Is it down to social structures or do we have more control in being who we are? Identity is a complicated idea. Identity means having the traits by which we are distinctively recognisable. Identity, as a sociological concept, is split into personal and social identity. Personal identity refers to the individual uniqueness of a person; that is, how the individual feels on the inside or how they view themselves. Mead refers to this as the “I” in his ‘I and the me’ theory. Social identity refers to the identity that we present to the outside world. There might be various ways in which people identify differently internally from how they present outwardly. Mead refers to this as “the me” in his ‘I and the me’ theory. Page | 32 Identity and Age Age is seen as an important component of a person’s identity. While we measure age objectively. We consider age to be socially constructed. There is no consensus about what constitutes any category of age. Obviously, the law plays a part in determining what can be done in terms of the law. However, this may change over time and be culturally diverse. The age of adult accountability varies in the UK today because there are different ages for driving, drinking alcohol and getting married. In Unit 2, you will cover how childhood has changed over time. It is important to review this section of the Unit 2 study notes when revising identity and age. Milestones are deemed crucial (such as becoming a teenager, the 21st and 50th birthdays). As society changes, how people are socialised changes too. and there can be quite marked generation gaps in terms of values and attitudes. Age has played an important role in elections in the UK, such as the 2014 Scottish Independence referendum and the 2016 EU referendum. There is a view that young people are more extreme than older generations, and this is partly because older people were socialised into norms and values that come to be seen as old-fashioned. Simon Biggs (1993) looked at depictions of older adults in the media and found that they were often shown as a problem and difficult. Young people are often seen the same in the media too. youths are often represented in the media as a problem often involved in gang violence or drug use. These stereotypes affect how age groups are perceived by society and impact the individual’s self-worth. Negative attitudes to different age groups can lead to ageism. Ageism can result in a lack of opportunities and is a form of discrimination with young people being seen as not having experience and older people not having the necessary technical skills. (Lambert, (1984). However, older men are often portrayed as much more powerful than females. This is often seen in news pairings where younger female newsreaders are paired with older males. Marxists debate that capitalism affects the stigmatisation of older people in society leading to them being seen as not useful to society. Traditionally, they were not seen as large consumers, but with the fiscal challenges, they now have more spending power than other groups. Page | 33 Identity and Ethnicity Ethnicity is broader than only looking at race. It encompasses shared ancestry, history, language, religion, and dress. Ethnicity is deemed to be a significant source of identity for many people, perhaps more so in a multicultural society. Immigration to the UK, from commonwealth countries like India and Jamaica after World War 2 has led to well-established communities in the UK. The 2021 census found that 18% of the UK population was from minority-ethnic groups. As with age, children are socialised into their ethnicity. Primary socialisation is particularly important in this process, where parents pass on the norms and values of their ethnicity to their children. During secondary socialisation, one might expect to see more integration into one set of norms and values through the media and education. Rosemary Hill carried out research in Leicester amongst a group of South Asian families. She found a generational conflict between young people and their parents. She argued that children were socialised into their minority ethnicity by their parents, and that the norms and values taught here clashed with those that they acquired from school and from their white peers which were more “Western”. However, Ballard suggests that young minority-ethnic individuals can negotiate their identity to please parents and peers by behaving differently at home compared to when out with their friends. However, these studies may be out-of-date as many minority-ethnic parents and even grandparents were brought up in the UK. Processes like labelling in schools also play a part. For example, several sociologists, such as Gillborn, Wright, Mac an Ghail and Sociologists, such as Tony Sewell have studied the impact of mainstream media, including stereotypes of minority-ethnic groups and the relationship in developing identity, for example the growth of gang culture among black youths. These ideas are more about how people develop their own identities, in part through their interactions with others and reacting to how others see them. However, researchers such as Mac and Ghail and Mirza, who you will come across in the Education unit, suggests identity is shaped through the labelling made by those in power such as teachers. Page | 34 Ethnic Identity and Social Change As with age, ethnicity overlaps with other identities. Stuart Hall argues that for some minority-ethnic individuals today, gender, social class, region, and other identities are more significant than their ethnicity. In the UK, some minority- ethnic groups lean towards the working class and these two identities combine. Furthermore, ethnicity and gender traverse. Difference feminists look at how patriarchy and racism drawback women from minority-ethnic backgrounds. The UK today has grown in hybrid cultures where people take elements of more than one ethnicity to create a new one, such as Brazilian (British-Asian). Sociologists such as Gilroy, have written about hybrid cultures and the ways in which second and third generations combine elements of the minority-ethnic culture of their parents or grandparents and the culture of the broader society they live in. Page | 35 Identity and Social Class A social class is a group of people of similar status, commonly sharing comparable levels of power and wealth. It relates to what sociologists call stratification: the idea that society has social strata, or layers, with the wealthy at the top and the poor at the bottom. Social class can be categorised in many ways; the terms upper, middle, working and underclass are commonly used. Social class is the key area of focus for Marxist sociologists. Marx himself used different categories of social class, based on how people related to what he called the means of production. Those who owned the means of production–factories, companies, etc. were the ruling class, whereas those who worked in them were the working class. Marx was a major opponent of capitalism, both as an economic system and due to the conditions that the proletariat lived and worked in. He believed capitalism deepens class struggle. He noted that the bourgeoisie owned the workplaces, such as factories – coining the phrase ‘means of production’ to describe this and concluded that the owners of the workplaces exploited their workforce by employers paying them less than the value of their labour – allowing for an increase in profits for the bourgeoisie. Marx saw profit as the ‘engine of capitalism.’ Marx stressed that the reason the proletariat accepts the situation is because of ‘false class consciousness.’ This means that workers are coerced into accepting their situation by the bourgeoisie, causing them to believe that they’re both getting a fair deal. The Superstructure: This is the social structure of society including the education system, political system and so forth. These institutions pass on the ideas of the ruling class to the workers who accept them. Ruling class dominance is confirmed in these institutions conflict in society: the social structure upon which most other features of society rest. It is important to read through the sections on cultural capital and language in the education section of the study notes (Unit 3). Page | 36 Class Identity and Social Change Postmodernists argue that consumption is now a more important source of identity than production: people are defined more now by what they buy, not by what they earn. However, right-wing theorists such as Saunders stress that we live in a meritocratic society where class is no longer important. Although Bradley (2018) suggests that class is an important area to discuss but it is not a separate entity but interrelates with other sources of identity such as ethnicity and gender. The description of what constitutes the working class has changed due to the skills required within societies: In times of high unemployment, skilled workers have had to take on unskilled roles and low-paid jobs. Due to a change in the skills needed for jobs and the areas that require workers, some have joined the proletariat out of no fault of their own as their skills are no longer required. Also, we no longer live in a society where there is a job for life and people will have 4 or more jobs. This means that they may not stay in the same career and could possibly move to different stratas This can be seen with retirees going back to work in retail when they retired from managerial positions. With the introduction of the gig economy and zero-hour contract freelancers, well-educated individuals have joined the working classes in terms of finances. Identity and Disability Sociologists are interested in the way disability impacts someone’s identity or sense of self. Tom Shakespeare suggests that disability is a label with a negative connotation. To him, disability is a social construct rather than a biological explanation, Barnes goes further to show that individuals with disabilities are forced into the ‘disability role’ by society which is the start of discrimination and reinforces negative stereotypes such as being weak and dependent on others. This can lead to learned helplessness. Page | 37 There are layers of discrimination according to Shakespeare. For example, today visible physical disabilities are less stigmatised than invisible impairments. For example, people with invisible impairments making use of disabled facilities such as parking spaces often receive verbal abuse. However, with more visible people in the public eye discussing their disabilities and challenge of working practices by individuals using the 2010 Equality Act, we are seeing a change in how we see identity. Identity and Gender Gender refers to the social differences traditionally between males and females and is based on social factors such as values, perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes. Gender describes socially constructed ideas of masculinity and femineity. Gender identities are created through a range of processes at home, such as: Canalisation (when parents give their children gender-specific items, such as toys, which are either masculine or feminine, reinforcing gender norms from a young age). Manipulation (parents actively encourage their children to behave and act in a way that is considered appropriate for their gender, such as dressing daughters in dresses or telling sons not to cry.) These processes keep going through school and through the media, with messages of what is seen as “normal” for each gender being constantly reinforced. Page | 38 Some parents choose to bring up their children gender-neutrally to challenge traditional views and stereotypes. It is important to consider how female identity is shaped by the role of the family, education, and the media. You will find separate sections of each of these in the following study notes: Unit 2 - The Family Unit 3 - Education Unit 4 - The Media Gender Identity and Social Change Toxic masculinity refers to cultural norms and expectations that promote harmful or detrimental behaviours and attitudes associated with traditional male gender roles. It is not a criticism of masculinity itself, but rather a critique of certain narrow and harmful expressions of masculinity that can be damaging to both men and society at large. The "crisis of masculinity" is a term used to describe the perceived challenges and struggles faced by men in contemporary society, particularly in relation to their traditional roles and identities. It was coined by Mac an Ghail in 2004. It reflects the idea that some men may find it difficult to adapt to the changing social, economic, and cultural landscape, leading to a sense of uncertainty or disorientation about their roles and place in the world. Some factors often cited as contributing to the crisis of masculinity include: Changing Gender Roles: The roles of men and women in society have evolved over time. With greater emphasis on gender equality and women's empowerment, traditional roles, and expectations for men as the primary breadwinners and decision-makers have been challenged. This can create confusion and a sense of loss of identity for some men. Page | 39 Economic Shifts: Economic changes, such as job insecurity, unemployment, and the decline of certain traditionally male-dominated industries can lead to feelings of emasculation and loss of purpose for some men. Social Expectations and Stereotypes: Society's expectations of masculinity, such as the pressure to conform to traditional notions of strength, stoicism, and dominance can be limiting and challenging for men who do not naturally fit these stereotypes. Emotional Suppression: Traditional masculinity often discourages men from expressing vulnerability or seeking emotional support leading to emotional isolation and mental health issues. Relationships and Intimacy: Difficulty in forming and maintaining meaningful relationships, as well as challenges in navigating changing dynamics within partnerships can be part of the crisis of masculinity. Over the past 20 years, we have seen a move away from focusing on traditional genders and focusing on transgender, non-binary, and gender fluidity due to not fitting into previous societal gender norms. We now acknowledge transgender as the third gender. Gender deviation from the traditional two-gender society is not a new phenomenon but because of more people speaking out and mental health issues due to being shoehorned into a gender that you know is not you, society is now becoming more welcoming of this change. Page | 40 Exam Preparation: Try it! Human behaviour can be fully explained by the process of socialisation. Explain and assess this view. (26 marks) 2 Methods of Research Sociologists rely on a range of research methods to gather invaluable evidence in which they develop theories and others social policies. In this section of the unit, you will develop an understanding of various methods as well as an evaluation of each one. Types of Data, Methods, and Research Design Primary Data: Information which was not present before the research began. Data produced by the researcher’s own investigations, questionnaires, interviews, and observations. Secondary Data: Data which already exists. It includes data from historical records, official statistics, government reports, diaries, letters, autobiographies, novels, newspapers, films. Quantitative Data: Also, generally known as Number data! Is represented statistically or numerically. It is the preferred method of Positivists. Qualitative Data: Also known as ‘rich’ data, is concerned with thoughts, feelings, and opinions. It involves interpretation of the information gathered. Positivism and Research Methods Positivism is the scientific approach to the study of society. Comte believed that scientific knowledge about society could be used to improve human existence. He argued that sociology was a ‘positive philosophy.’ Therefore, positivists are not concerned with the internal meanings, motives, feelings, and emotions of individuals. These cannot be measured objectively. Page | 41 Research Methods Favoured by Positivists Social Facts: Data should be collected through social facts so that they are objectively observed and measured. Sociologists should disregard a person’s feelings and emotions as they occur in the consciousness and cannot be measured/observed objectively. Statistical/quantitative Data: Positivists believe it is possible to count sets of observable social factors that can produce statistics. Correlations: Looks at correlations between different social facts. One example is the work of Durkheim, who found a correlation between Protestantism and high suicide rates. Multivariate Analysis: Establishes causal connections between two or more variables. Multi-context analysis can determine if the independent variable changes the dependent variable. For example, Durkheim studied suicide in different countries. Hypothetico-Deductive Model: Developing a hypothesis through observation and reading. Form a study Collect data Analyse data Confirm/reject hypothesis Theory is confirmed Page | 42 Positivism: Key Research Methods Quantitative research methods are preferred by positivists as they are objective, which means data can be used to show cause and effect, and generalisations. Quantitative research methods include the following: Laboratory Experiments Preferred by positivists, as they test hypothesise in a controlled environment where the researcher changes the independent variable and measures the effect on the dependent variable. They are reliable as the original experiment can be replicated. However, they are artificial as they are carried out in artificial environments, and they can also create a Hawthorne effect - a lab is not a formal or natural environment participants act differently. Regarding ethical issues, the researcher needs informed consent from the participants and lacks generalisability because they are small-scale. It is also difficult to control all the variables that might have an influence. Field Experiments Field Experiments happen in the real world. Participants do not know that they are happening. There is less control over variables than in laboratory experiments. Field experiments can only be applied to a limited number of social situations. Page | 43 Activity How could you carry a piece of research about education and streaming using a field experiment? by monitoring the academical activity of students according to how much time they spend watching content. Questionnaires Written or self-completed questionnaires can be issued through the post, electronically or handed out in person. Questionnaires are typically a list of closed-end questions with pre-coded answers. They are cheap and quick and can produce quantifiable data. They can be representative as they reach a widespread sample. Questionnaires are easy to send out again and they adhere to ethical guidelines because respondents do not need to answer the question. Postal questionnaires obtain a low response rate, which may impact the representativity and have low validity as respondents are more willing to lie. As the researcher is not present the respondent is unable to get support if they do not understand the questions. Activity What problems could there be with using questionnaires to find out about parent’s view of the school their children attend? the parents are not present during the classes therefore do not have an actual raw opinion of the classes and are unaware of what happens. they also can be biased as they can lie or not be correctly informed. they can also lie to give a good reputation Exam preparation: Try it! to the scool. Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of using a questionnaire in sociological research. (4 marks) Questionnaires are great as they can reach a large number of individuals therefore offer good enough amounts of data to reach generaliztions and to collect large amount sof indormations with minimal efforts as questinnaires cna be sent in by the post of digitally and the research team has litle effort to do. however, qustionnaires can be unreliable as the individuals can lie on the tests or even simply not do them as they may doubt the source and intentions of the researchers. this is singificant as any lies can jeaopardize the research. Page | 44 Structured Interviews Structured interviews can be face-to-face or through other forms of electronic and telecommunications. They use a list of pre-set questions. They are practical because interviewers are trained. They are representative as they can reach many people. However, they do lack validity as people may lie *Hawthorne effect or exaggerate to fit in (social desirability) have you been a victim of crime in your area in the past year? do you know anyone close to you who has been victim of crime in your area in the past year? Activity would you say there is a high crime rate on your area? woudl you say that the governing authorities are doing anything to prevent it? woudl you say they are successful or not? do you feel in danger when you go out in your area? Create a short, structured interview to find out about crime in the local area. Exam Preparation: Try it! Explain two of the problems sociologists face when conducting structured interviews. by conducting (4 person, structured interviews, sociologists may face several problems. by being confronted to a physical marks) the individual interviews may not anser truthfully as they may feel pressured in giving a socially acceptabe answer aka the Hawthorne effect. aditionally, structured interviews may be too time consuming to carry out and with the possibility of the lie, they can be wrong and throw off the entire Official Statistics research. Official statistics are collated by Government departments. These include data such as birth rates, the number of marriages, GCSE results and the number of crimes that have been committed. Each unit within your a-level will include official statistics - it is important to remember this information for your exam. Official statistics are used to show patterns and trends over time. This helps sociologists and others use this information to draw up actions to deal with potential issues, such as having more midwives if the birth rate increases and support in place in schools if groups are underperforming. However, the data is not without its problems. For example, the way in which the data is defined may not be the same way that everyone defines it. It may not include certain groups within society. For example, marriage and divorce data does not include marriages where the couples no longer live together. Data on topics that are only seen as important by the government is collated, so there may be areas that are neglected. Page | 45 i thik that Marxists and not fans of official staistics as they have a deep rooted anger towards the Bourgeoisie and the people in power. since official statistics are collected byt he government departments, Marxists would think that the government manipulates the data to in turn manipulate the population into a snese that everyhting is well and to dum out sentiments of revolt. Activity Marxists are not big fans of official statistics - why do you think this could be? Exam preparation: Try it! Describe two sociological research methods favoured by positivists, apart from laboratory experiments. (4 marks) Assess the view that the findings of sociological research are only convincing when positivist methods are used. (10 marks) Interpretivism Interpretivist sociology developed alongside the social action approach to the study of society. Social action approaches include Social Action theory, Interactional, Ethnomethodology and Phenomenology. However, the interpretivist approach has been embraced by Feminists and many neo-Marxists. Interpretivist sociologists reject the use of ‘scientific approaches’ as they are inappropriate for the study of social action. They are that the subject matter of social and natural sciences is different. People interpret and experience the world in terms of meanings. They have free will, feelings, motives, and intentions. These cannot be objectively observed and measured. Qualitative data is often described as richer, more personal data that is higher in validity. It uncovers meaning and social action, allowing researchers to gain a sense of verstehen. (understanding) This allows sociologists to search and find the meanings given to events, situations, and actions by social factors. Page | 46 Interpretivists focus on small scale groups and specific situations. This allows sociologists to preserve the individuality of each of these in their analysis. Unanticipated Phenomena: In qualitative data, the researcher may not fully know what they are looking for. They start with an interest but have no idea where it may lead in their research. Therefore, they are open-minded and expect the unexpected. Grounded Theory: A theory may emerge from the actual process of research, as it is grounded from actual events and the process of social interaction. Interpretivists use these as they provide meaningful insights into social behaviour. Qualitative research methods include unstructured interviews, participant observations and documents. Unstructured Interviews Unstructured interviews involve open-ended questions that produce qualitative data that is enriching. There must be a good rapport between the two parties so to gather more accurate information which is then more likely to be valid. The informality allows the interviewer to develop a relationship and rapport with the interviewee. They are flexible as the interviewer is not restricted to a fixed set of questions. However, they are typically longer, consume more time and have a smaller research sample, as well as un-representative due to how there is a small research sample, data obtained is not representative of the wider population. They can be considered to lack reliability due to how the questions are open, another researcher cannot easily repeat them. Additionally, the respondent's ability to respond in the way they wish makes it impossible to objectively interpret meaning. Page | 47 Activity Identify and explain one area within sociology that an unstructured interview would work well. Participant Observation The researcher participates in the activities of the group they are researching. They are valid as groups are observed in a natural setting; therefore, the data is more likely to be a true account of the group’s behaviour. Being both open-ended and subjective research, there is no standardised system of measurement and cannot be replicated. They can be considered as unrepresentative - most participant observations investigate small-scale groups that are not representative of the wider population. Finally, they lack validity because of the Hawthorne effect, due to how the observer is likely to affect the group's behaviour. Exam Preparation: Try it! Describe two issues with participant observation. (4 marks) Personal Documents These include diaries and letters. They have validity as they are written for personal reasons so will have a high level of validity and provide an in-depth and genuine insight into people's attitudes. They are practical as they are cheap and save researchers time. They focus on many areas of social life and can be used to confirm other accounts. There can be a lack of representativeness as some groups are unlikely to produce personal documents such as letters and diaries while those with time and literacy skills may be over-represented. Personal bias is likely to be present. Page | 48 Activity How could we use personal diaries from the 1900’s to get an understanding of life in those times? Exam Preparation: Try it! Explain why some sociologists have questioned the value of quantitative data. (8 marks) Sociology, Objectivity and Value Freedom A key area of debate refers to whether a sociologist could ever be objective, meaning that they are free from bias and are neutral in their stance. This would mean that the research they are covering must have value freedom. This refers to the research process should be separate from the values held by the researcher. Often researchers from an interpretivist stance are criticised as being value-laden. This means that sociological theory and research are likely to contain the personal values of the researcher. Positivists argue sociology should be value-free and neutral. They argue that sociology should be scientific and an essential aspect of this is objectivity. The researcher should remain unbiased during their course of the research process. Using structured and scientific methods helps to ensure objectivity and value freedom. This can be achieved through collecting social facts that exist independently of the researcher. Once data about these social factors have been collected, a theory can then be established. Such theories can then be tested continuously and can be contested/open to criticism by others. Marx believed himself to be a positivist, using scientific methods to produce a theory to benefit society. Page | 49 Activity Would you argue that Marx offers a value-free or value-laden approach? Alternatively, Weber identified that social facts and values are different. Values do not produce facts, and facts cannot produce values. Max Weber did however argue that values have a place in both sociology and science. 1. Our values influence the topics that we choose (value relevance). Researchers choose topics they think are important to society. 2. The researcher’s values are inevitably going to be involved in the interpretation of the data – particularly if they are part of a theoretical framework. 3. The researcher must take full responsibility for their research and shape how their finding should be used. Weber does however note that values must not be involved in the collection of the data – for example asking no leading questions. Interpretivism – Sociology as Value-Laden Sociologists have set values, personal beliefs and interests which will heavily influence their entire research study. Gouldner believes that a value free sociology is not feasible; it is a myth. Sociologists make domain assumptions of the research; therefore, they decide the method, questions, and type of data desirable. In addition, those who pay for the research have reason to influence the area the research is conducted upon. This means that the values of funding bodies are going to be involved in the research. Page | 50 Activity Write a 300-word summary to show whether sociology can be value-free. (Remember to consider value-laden in your answer too.) Is Sociology a Science? The link between sociology and science is the source of much debate between positivism and interpretivism. Positivists argue that sociology should be ‘scientific’ in its approach to the study of the social world. However, interpretivists argue that the social world differs significantly from the natural world. Many argue that positivism’s scientific approach is inadequate and completely unsuited to the study of society. Page | 51 What is Science? Science is usually associated with chemistry, physics, biology, medicine etc. it can be seen to be a body of knowledge that is rational and logical. Science is characterised by the following factors. Empirical: Date should be counted and measured. Reliable: Tests can be repeated as many times as possible and should be verified. Theoretical: Tests should uncover causal relationships. Cumulative: Builds on previous knowledge. Objective: Non-bias data that is not influenced by personal or organisational beliefs. Positivists argue that sociology can and should be scientific. Positivists argue that sociology can be scientific. They believe that social phenomena can be observed, measured, and quantified. Durkheim strongly believes that sociology can be a science. He demonstrated this belief in his sociological study of suicide. In this, he used the scientific methods of the Hypotheico-Deductive model and multi-variate analysis. Durkheim felt sociologists could discover laws of human nature. Durkheim strongly believes that sociological theory can be verified through the process of verifications. This is where repetition of the method can generate the truth and aid in predicting the future and guide policies. Positivists strive to make sociology scientific, but this assumes that science itself is scientific. There are several arguments that challenge the view that science is as scientific as it claims to be. However, these have implications for sociology. Page | 52 Karl Popper – Falsification Popper disagrees that scientific theories can be produced through inductive reasoning as Positivists would argue, where the replication of a method and gathering of evidence to support an idea therefore makes it true. Popper believes science should be based on the process of falsification; this is where a theory should be able to withstand being falsified by attempting to disprove it by gathering data. Theories are only provisional because they have not been disproven. Popper uses the example of a swan. Collectively we all believe that swans are white. However, rather than looking for white swans to prove our theory, we should seek to look for swans of a different colour other than white to falsify this claim. This means that even if we were to see one black swan, it would prove that the theory of ‘all swans are white’ is incorrect. For Popper, sociology can therefore not be scientific. This is because sociological theories cannot be disproven. Take Marxist ideas as an example, the belief that a proletariat revolution will occur, and society will move from a capitalist to a communist society Popper notes that sociology could only be classed as scientific if it produces a hypothesis that could be falsified through empirical research. Popper therefore views sociology as NOT scientific but offers a way in which sociology can be seen as scientific in the future by producing a hypothesis that can be actively falsified. Thomas Kuhn – Scientific Paradigms For Thomas Kuhn, science operates in its own paradigm, a framework that is shared by a group of people. He believes that the natural sciences work on a set of practices and routines that are unquestioned by those who carry out such customs. When anomalies do occur within the natural science which questions the original frameworks used, a scientific revolution will occur to restructure the scientific paradigm accordingly using the new discoveries made. Page | 53 Kuhn applied his notion of scientific paradigms to sociology, to argue that as a subject it cannot be scientific. Sociology does not operate in one single paradigm as the natural sciences do. There are a range of theories adopted by sociologists and all possess very distinct views of society. Sociology can therefore only be scientific if these different ideologies did not exist. Sociology must be objective to be scientific. Kuhn therefore views sociology as NOT scientific but offers a way in which sociology can be seen as scientific in the future which is to simply eradicate all different views of sociology and conform to one singular ideology. Realism – Sociology and Science are Similar Realists believe there are similarities between both social and natural sciences but are heavily critical of positivist methodology. Realists believe these similarities lie in relation to the degree of control the researcher has over certain variables. Sociologists cannot predict that crime rates will increase due to numerous variables beyond their control, but they can explore its impact on society. Linking to Marxism, sociology cannot directly observe capitalism but can study its effect in relation to poverty. This goes against the Interpretivist view that sociology cannot be a science. Interpretivists would argue sociology cannot be a science because we cannot observe people’s thoughts in their mind, and therefore cannot make predictions. However, the open system of society demonstrates that we can observe the unobservable, simply by exploring its effects on society. Page | 54 Activity Using the topic of education, can sociology be scientific in its methods? Exam Preparation: Outline and explain two arguments against the view that sociology is a science. (10 marks) Page | 55 Triangulation Most researchers employ more than one research method when investigating a phenomenon. This is to enhance the validity of their findings. The more sources, the better, as using a variety of research methods helps to reduce the weaknesses of one another. Typically, good practice is to utilise three methods (hence the name triangulation). Research Design When designing research, several factors come into play. 1. Practical Considerations Subject Matter: Some methods are more suitable than others for conducting different types of research. For example, if you wanted to study teenage gangs it is unlikely you could interview them or ask them to fill in a questionnaire. Therefore, observation would be the only method to use. Time: Time is also another factor. If a researcher only has a limited amount of time, then they are more likely to choose methods that are quick such as questionnaires or analysing official statistics. Funding Body: Funding also affects the chosen research method, for example, large-scale surveys may cost a great deal of money due to employing interviewers and data inputting staff. In contrast, a small-scale project involving a lone researcher may be cheaper but can take several years to complete. Requirements of Funding Bodies: Research institutions, businesses and other organisations may require the results to be in a particular form. For example, the government may have targets to meet and therefore require the data to be in statistical form so that it can be compared and analysed. Therefore, a researcher may choose questionnaires or structured interviews as their method. Page | 56 Research Opportunity: Sometimes the opportunity to carry out research occurs unexpectedly, and this means that it is not viable to use structured methods such as questionnaires, which take longer to prepare. For example, James Patrick’s opportunity to study a Glasgow gang came ‘out of the blue;’ he had no option than to use participant observation. Personal Skills and Characteristics: The age, sex, race, and class of the researcher may affect the choice of method a researcher uses. For example, if a male researcher wanted to study domestic violence, he would find it difficult to gain female trust. Therefore, this would affect how the study would be carried out. If a white person wanted to study ‘black gangs’ in the USA, they would find it difficult to use covert observation. 2. Ethical Considerations Ethics is the study of what is morally right or wrong. The main ethical issues surrounding sociological research are: Harm: Sociologists should not risk harming someone physically, emotionally (by asking insensitive questions) and socially (by damaging their reputation). Privacy and Confidentiality: All participants should have the right to know what the research is about and be able to refuse to take part. This is a problem if you want to carry out a covert observation. Confidentiality means that the information an individual gives to the researcher cannot be traced back to that individual. This is easy if carrying out a social survey but more difficult when a small number of people have been studied through observation. Honesty and Openness: Informed consent should be gained from the participant. Ensuring that they know that the research is going on, who is doing it, why it’s being done and how the results will be used. This is not always easy to gain especially with young children or people with learning disabilities. You can find the British Sociological Association's Statement of Ethical Practice on www.britsoc.co.uk. Page | 57 3. The Theoretical Approach The theoretical approach (Positivist/Interpretivist) the researcher follows, will impact how they design and develop their research. Other factors affecting research design and choice of topic. Values of the researcher. The researchers are likely to study something they consider important and what they consider to be important is influenced by the values they hold. For example, a sociologist who believes in gender equality may study the position of women at work and in the home. Current debates in the academic world. Sociologists are more likely to study topics that are creating interest and controversy in society e.g., Black Lives Matter. The choice will also be influenced by practical issues such as funding bodies. Most research projects require outside funding which is available from various sources such as charities and government organisations. Large-scale research projects are expensive and there is stiff competition for this money. Research proposals will need to match funding body requirements to attract funding. Access to the subject matter. Some areas of social life are more accessible than others e.g., the private life of a family is much harder to study than the public life of a classroom. Some topic areas have little or no data available, (e.g., a study of MI5) therefore it makes little sense to choose such a topic. State crime may also be difficult to investigate as most countries would not want such information becoming available to the general public. Page | 58 The choice of topic will also be affected by the theoretical position of the researcher. Feminist sociologists will tend to choose topics, which reflect feminist issues – in particular, gender inequalities. Marxists tend to research class systems and class conflict, as this is what they believe society is based on. Overview of the Research Process 1. The researcher has a topic they wish to investigate (remember this will be affected by a variety of other factors, such as theoretical views and interests). 2. The researcher will then develop a testable research hypothesis (prediction of results) and select their research method (again, remember, this will be affected by a theoretical standpoint). 3. Data collection, via primary methods (check your knowledge below) or secondary methods (check your knowledge below). If primary, who will be sampled and how? Refer to the sampling techniques section below. For secondary methods, what data will be used? 4. Once all the above are decided, a pilot study will be carried out. 5. Following the findings and evaluations of the pilot study, the larger scale research will be carried out. 6. The data collected from the research will be analysed and conclusions will be drawn. Findings will be explained in relation to theory/a theory will be developed. Page | 59 Activity Produce a table that shows the practical, ethical, and theoretical advantages and disadvantages of the research methods used by positivists and interpretivism. Exam Preparation: Try it: ‘Practical factors are more important than theoretical factors in influencing the choice of research method in sociology.’ Explain and assess this view. (26 marks) TMA1 Describe two types of interviews. (4 marks) Evaluate the view that female identity is changing. (26 marks) Page | 60

A Level Sociology Unit 1 - Socialisation, Identity, and Methods of Research PDF

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