Sociological Perspectives PDF

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Presenter: Ms. J. Palmer Inservice Education Unit/ MoH GENERAL OBJECTIVES: - Determine the reasons for studying sociology - Explore the fundamental concepts of sociology - Evaluate the different theoretical or sociological perspectives in sociology DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY S...

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Presenter: Ms. J. Palmer Inservice Education Unit/ MoH GENERAL OBJECTIVES: - Determine the reasons for studying sociology - Explore the fundamental concepts of sociology - Evaluate the different theoretical or sociological perspectives in sociology DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY Sociology is the systematic study of human society. It involves the social aspects of human life, the analysis of the structure of social life to observe human’s action or interaction within a group. Process by which individuals learn the culture of their society Sociology is the science of society, social institutions, and specifically the systematic study of the development, structure, interaction and collective behaviour of organised human groups. Sociology is a disciplined approach to understanding society and social life. emphasis on group contexts and broad societal forces. Unlike psychology, sociology focuses on the group, not the individual SOCIOLOGY Though sociology is an independent discipline, there is much overlap with other social sciences such as anthropology, history, psychology, political science and economics. SOCIOLOGY Sociologists are trained to find answers to questions about people's behaviour. They are interested in understanding the effects that people have on one another. Sociologists are convinced that much of people's behaviour is a result of what other people do and the group to which you belong. Even when you think you are making your own choices, often you are selecting from the limited range of options that others allow. Society places restrictions on your behaviour with very little regard for your preferences. The study of sociology does not require that we abandon our values, thoughts, ideas and accumulated knowledge, but it does necessitate being open minded and tolerant of values, thoughts, ideas, knowledge and experiences that may be dramatically different from our own. WHY NURSES STUDY SOCIOLOGY? 1) To get a clearer understanding of the social relationships and social influences, which are operating in any social situation or organization, including those pertaining to nursing. 2) To assist in the process of interaction, roles, human groups and socialization. 3) To be aware of scientific knowledge in order to apply to the practical situations, since practical problems cannot intelligently be stated without basic knowledge. 4)To develop an understanding of self, colleagues and community. 5) To understand roles and the social levels of personnel with whom we work. 6) To know the origin and nature of some major social problems. 7) To become sensitize to a universe of human relationships that one may have known before - it makes us see relationships in a new light, to enable us to define the conditions for the existence of any society. 8) To help the nurse analyze and understand the immediate social structure in which he or she functions as an individual; their related systems of norms, laws, customs, traditions and collective attitudes. 9) To help the nurse understand the conditions in society that affect the health and welfare of the population. 10) To assist the nurse in clarifying the differences between, function on one hand, or goal, or purpose, or motives on the other hand. 11) To understand the division of labour in health care and the complex division of labour among those who perform it. 12) To help the nurse learn to function in different social situations. 13) To give the nurse an understanding of her own social world. Sociology Focuses on: How social relationships influence people's attitudes and behavior How major social institutions affect us How we affect other individuals, groups, and organizations CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIOLOGY Sociology possesses characteristics that allow us to identify it as a science: 1. It is empirical: that is, it is based on observation, not imaginations or revelation and its results are not speculative. Sociologist do not guess. 2. It is theoretical: this means that sociology attempts to summarise complex observations in abstract, logically related principles which explain causal relationships in the subject matter. 3. It’s cumulative: sociological theories build one on the other. New theories correct, extend and refine older ones. 4. It is non-ethical: Sociologist do not ask whether a particular social actions are good or bad; they seek to explain them example sociologist will not condemn common law unions or marriage. They must therefore prevent personal values and beliefs from influencing his her work. THE ORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY Three major social changes during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are important to the development of sociology. The rise of a factory-based industrial economy. The emergence of great cities in Europe. □ Political changes, including a rising concern with individual liberty and rights. The French Revolution symbolized this dramatic break with political and social tradition. DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY Sociology is among the youngest academic disciplines, it was in 1838 that a French man called Auguste Comte (1798-1857) coined the word sociology to describe a new way of looking at the world. It is said to have its roots in the Latin word "socio" meaning Society and the Greek word "logos" meaning Knowledge. When translated, literally means knowledge of our society from which we get other definitions. Comte established two specific problems for sociological investigation, 'social statics' and 'social dynamics'. - Social statics refers to the problem of order and stability, how and why societies hold together and endure? - Social dynamics refers to the problem of social change. What makes societies change and what determines the nature and direction of the changes? Comte was confident that the scientific method would unlock the secrets of society, that he came to regard sociologists as a 'priesthood of humanity", experts who would not only explain social events but, would also guide society in the direction of greater progress. (It was he who argued in 1838, that the methods of science should be applied to the study of society). Sociology developed in response to the changes occurring in Europe in the nineteenth century. These societies were experiencing drastic changes such as urbanization and democratization as a result of the French and Industrial Revolutions. The influence of the church was also declining and scholars were turning to science to provide answers to their concerns. Early sociologists (Augusté Comte and Herbert Spence (1820-1903)) were pioneers in applying the principles of the natural sciences to the study of society. Spencer believed that society was an organism; that is, it contained parts (institutions) that performed specific functions for its well-being. The more substantial contributors however were from the three major founding fathers of discipline: Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber. FOUNDING FATHERS Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Durkheim moved sociology fully into the realm of an empirical science Most well known empirical study is called Suicide, where he looks at the social causes of suicide Generally regarded as the founder of functionalist theory FOUNDING FATHERS Functionalist also saw society as a complex system of interdependent parts, striving toward balance and harmony. They saw the major institutions in society - the family, the school, the economy and the government as fulfilling important functions for the survival of the society, and as being dependent on each other. A change in one affects all the others. For example, a change in the economy has a ripple effect on families when the breadwinner is laid off, and on schools when taxes and budgets are affected. Durkheim believed that social order was created by an underlying set of moral rules, norms, beliefs and values, that gives members of society the shared feeling of belonging, thereby keeping society in harmony and equilibrium Durkheim argued that, social facts (unwritten rules created by society) influence people's thoughts and actions, thereby controlling them. Karl Marx (1818-1883) - is considered the founder of conflict theory. Conflict theorists emphasise the importance of social change, competition and antagonism among social groups, the struggle of power and the resulting conflict in society. Marx view society as an arena of conflict and competing interests. According to Marx, capitalism results in differences in wealth and power in society. As such, some groups become more privileged and powerful than others. These competing interests produce tension in society between the two classes - the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie (capitalists or owners). The worker becomes alienated because the bourgeoisie appropriates the products of his labour. He also suggested that, the dominant groups control the resources of society. In addition, because of their greater power and influence, they are able to maintain the status quo through the control of institutions, such as the school and the church. Marx wondered why the workers did not rebel against the system he saw to be exploitive and unfair. He concluded that the workers were lulled into complacency by an ideology fostered by the ruling class. They made the workers believe that the system was necessary and proper by using even religion. The worker came to believe that this was either the way it should be or the only way it could be. Marx call this false consciousness. Max Weber (1864-1920) - a German scholar whose writings were of relevance to economists, sociologist and historians. Unlike the other two founders who viewed society from macroperspective. Weber introduced a completely different approach to the study of society. He felt that social behaviour could not be adequately understood by looking at the large structures studied by the functionalist theorists. He believed that the smaller groups should be studied in more depth and detail in order to uncover the meanings underlying humans social action. Weber was also interested in bureaucracies and the process of rationalization in society. Weber used this method to form an ideal-type bureaucracy with the following: hierarchy, impersonality, written rules of conduct, promotion based on achievement, specialized division of labor, and efficiency. Today many of us regard bureaucracy as a dirty word, suggesting red tape, inefficiency, and officiousness. Bureaucracy means a system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials, rather than by elected representatives. Red tape means excessive bureaucracy or adherence to rules and formalities, especially in public business: Officious (adjective), means; assertive of authority in an annoyingly domineering way, especially with regard to petty or trivial matters Weber's purpose, however, was to define the essential features of new organizations and to indicate why these organizations worked so much better than traditional ones. Weber saw many advantages in bureaucracies but he also saw that sometimes the power shifted only to those at the top and resulted in an oligarchy. Oligarchy means a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution: Rationalization is a process in which a person enters, applying practical knowledge to achieve an end. Rationalization is a large part of Weber's theories on bureaucracy. According to Weber, rationalization means that there is growth in society where it develops concerns towards things like efficiency and coordination. Weber considered rationalization as the application of knowledge to achieve a desired outcome. Rationalization is the act of a person trying to explain the reason for an action, attitude, or behavior using reasons considered logical. The justification happens even when the action, attitude, or behavior is considered inappropriate. For an Example A choice made by a person to refrain from sexual intercourse until marriage because of their values cherishing abstinence before marriage can be linked to rationalization. The person making the choice explains it using their values or belief system. This is also where Weber and Marx begin to agree on some of the models of organization and rationalization. Both socialism and capitalism are the rational forms of sciences and organizations. Weber also discussed authority. Weber sought to know what gave the power to one individual to be able to claim authority over another individual, such as man over woman. He also used the ideal-type to explain this in terms of traditional authority - (pre- modern), - rational-legal authority (modern), - and charismatic. Max Weber said that sociology is a science that is concerned with a social action and the course and/or consequences of the action. He had a large influence on many of the ideas that are used in sociology today. OTHER IMPORTANT FOUNDERS 1. Harriet Martineau: Feminist and Methodologist Studied social life in Britain and US, translated Comte. Studied the impact of inequality 2. Herbert Spencer and Social Darwinism - An evolutionary model of society, known for "social Darwinism" but thought that attempts at social reform were wrong. FIVE KEY CONCEPTS 1. Social structure: refers to patterns of social relationships such as marriage or employment, of social positions and numbers of people. Patterns are relatively stable and change slowly 2. Social action: people's behaviour is based on meaningful understanding of what they do and is a response towards the actions of other people 3. Functional Integration: the ways in which the different parts of a social system are so closely related that one part affects the other 4. Power: the ability of a social actor to control the actions of others 5. Culture: the shared norms, values, beliefs, knowledge and symbols that make possible meaningful understanding of one's action and those of others. SOME IMPORTANT SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS SOCIETY In its general usage, whenever we say society, we are referring to the basic facts of human association. According to Stephens, Seach, et al in Thinking Sociology, "society is a very large grouping of institutions typically existing within a geographical boundary called a country." SOCIETY A society is a group of people who share a culture and live more or less together. They have a set of institutions which provide what they need to meet their physical, social, and psychological needs and which maintain order and the values of the culture. Social structures are the more or less stable patterns of people's interactions and relationships. SOCIAL STRUCTURE Social structure refers to patterns around which society is organized. Henslin (1999:96) defines social structure as "the framework of society that was already laid out before you were born." Social mobility is often achieved by routes provided by the social structure. in a bureaucracy, the patterns are well defined (in the army one moves up in rank). There are micro aspects of social structure such as statuses and roles. Larger social structures include groups and institutions (e.g., government, education, religion). Still larger are more obscure structures, (like those related to the economy). Often, ordinary people are not even aware of their existence. These obscure structures none-the-less have great impact on the character of society overall. SOCIAL INTERACTION Social interaction: the ways in which people respond to one another How we interact with people is shaped by our perception of their position relative to our own Meanings we ascribe to others' actions reflect norms and values of the dominant culture Ability to define social reality reflects a group's power within a society SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPT OF STATUS l To understand how society works, we not only have to understand the components of society or culture, but we also have to look at how men are affected by these components Of importance are the concepts of "role" and "status" Status is a position wiathin a group or society. It is the social position that is occupied by a member of society. A status carries with it a set of culturally defined rights and duties, which sociologists call a role. A society consists of individuals. Each of these persons occupies one or more socially defined positions in the society - woman, carpenter, son, teacher old person and so on. Such a position is called a status. A person's status determines where that individual "fits in society and how he or she relate to other people. The status of daughter, for example, determines the occupant's relationships with other members of the family. Naturally, a person can have several statuses simultaneously, but one of them, usually an occupational status, tends to be the most important, and sociologists sometimes refer to it as the person's "master status". Associated with each status is a set of rules and norms which guides the person occupying the status position as to the expected behaviour for that status. The set of rules and norms associated with a status position are referred to collectively as a role. Status and role are different aspects of the same reality Role is the behaviour patterns that are expected or required by society of the person occupying that particular status position. However, a role may become so much a part of the individual's personality that a person is not aware that he is playing a role, or be aware of his status. The sociological concept of role is taken directly from the theatre, it refers to the part or parts you play in society. Thus the distinction between status and role is a simple one; you occupy a status, but you play a role. Status and role are thus two sides of the same coin. HOW DOES AN INDIVIDUAL OBTAIN STATUS? Sociologists classify statuses in terms of how people obtain them. An 'ascribed status' is a social position that someone receives at birth or assumes involuntarily later in life. Examples of ascribe statuses include being a daughter, young, old, male, female, black or white. Ascribed statuses are matters about which people have little or no choice. By contrast, an achieved status refers to a social position that someone assumes voluntarily and that reflects personal ability and effort. It is acquired by direct and deliberate action. For example, being a Sociology student, a thief or a computer programmer. SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPT- ROLES A status carries with it a set of culturally defined rights and duties, which sociologists call a role. Role performance is the actual behavior of the person who occupies a status. A single status may have multiple roles attached to it, constituting a role set. ROLE SET Due to the fact that we occupy many statuses simultaneously everyday life is a mix of multiple roles, (role set). Robert Merton (1968) introduced the term role set to identify a number of roles attached to a single status. Four statuses are presented, each linked to a different role set. ROLE SET First, the female occupies the status of 'wife' with corresponding roles in relation to her husband with whom she would share a 'domestic role' in terms of maintaining the household. Secondly, she also holds the status of mother with responsibilities for her children as well as obligations (civic role) to their school and other organisations. Thirdly, as a professor, she interacts with students (teacher role) as well as with other academics (the colleagues role). Fourth, her role as a researcher (the laboratory role) generates data she uses in her publications (author role). In reality, though most statuses involve some combination of ascription and achievement. That is people's ascribed statuses influence the statuses they achieve. SOCIAL ROLES Social role: set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status · Role conflict: occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person; or when individuals move into occupations not common among people with their ascribed status Role strain: difficulty that arises when the same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations. Role exit: process of disengagement from a role central to one's selfidentity in order to establish a new role and identity GROUPS Group - two or more people who are bound in stable patterns of social interaction, with a sense of unity. Types of Groups: Primary-a small group, based on face to face contact with strong ties between all members. Secondary- formal, relatively distant ties between members COMPARISON OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS Primary group - Generally small Relatively long period of interaction Intimate, face-to-face association Some emotional depth to relationships Cooperative, friendly Secondary group - Usually, large Relatively short duration, often temporary Little social intimacy of mutual understanding Relationships generally Superficial More formal and impersonal TYPES OF GROUPS In-group: any group or category to which people feel they belong Out-group: any group or category to which people feel they do not belong Conflict between in-groups and out-groups can turn violent on personal as well as political level Reference group: any group individuals use as standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior Two basic purposes: set and enforce standards of conduct and belief; serve as standard against which people can measure themselves and others Coalition: temporary or permanent alliance geared toward common goal - Can be broad based or narrow INSTITUTIONS institutions are the principal social structures that organize, direct, and execute the essential tasks of living. Societies represent the most comprehensive and complex type of social structure in today's world. Some institutions are: Family, Medical, educational, economic, religious, legal and political systems The Family The family is one of the oldest institutions which George Peter Murdock (1949) defined as "a social group characterised by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction'. According to Murdock, the family includes both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially applied sexual relationship and one or more children, their own or adopted Religion Religion is an important aspect of social life. It is interwoven in the culture of a people and is intimately linked to the issues of social integration and conflicts, between different groups within a society and between societies. Sociologist examine the role, significance and impact of religion in society. Education Education is the methodical socialization of the young generation, learning of certain values physical and intellectual skills, required of them by society and through which the cohesion and survival of society are assured. Methodical means done according to a systematic or established form of procedure: Through education, individuals learn necessary knowledge and skills for the job and task that must be done in society particularly, in modern complex societies where the division of labour is highly specialised ECONOMIC The Economic institution - is the institution that governs the allocation of scarce resources in the society. These are: - Land Labour Capital goods Technical resources Marx argues that the economic institution is a result of societies order to economic and social relations in society. He said, society should be able to draw on its environmental resources and make the best use of them. He believes that the economic growth of any country depends on: - Desire for goods and services Attitude towards work Social mobility Religion and family structure Effect of population growth Role of government POLITICAL ls concerned with the disagreement of how scarce resources are allocated. It is the institution concerned with the means for maintaining order in the society. It consist of a set of interactions through which values, benefits, reward and deprivations are authoritatively allocated for society. Deprivation refers to denial of access to resources required for selfdevelopment and fulfillment of basic necessities. Political institution functions include: Allocating valued things for society in accordance to the demands of the society. Resolving differences which cannot be otherwise resolved example industrial disputes THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE The sociological perspective helps us to see general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals. It allows or forces us to look beyond the outer appearances of our social world and discover new levels of reality It also encourages us to realize that society guides our thoughts and deeds to see the strange in the familiar - Sociology also encourages us to see individuality in social context. The sociological perspective helps us assess both opportunities and constraints in our lives. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. The goal of sociological theory is to explain social in the real world. Theories are based on theoretical paradigms, sets of assumptions that guide thinking and research. SOCIOLOGICAL META THEORIES Three general theoretical orientations or perspectives for the study of society -Structural-Functionalism perspective - Conflict perspective -Interactionist perspective or Symbolic Interaction STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALIST Parts of a social system work together to maintain a balance Functions are actions that have positive consequences Dysfunctions are actions that have negative consequences Manifest functions are intended Latent functions are unintended The structural-functional theory is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. It asserts that our lives are guided by social structures (relatively stable patterns of social behavior). Each social structure has social functions, or consequences, for the operation of society as a whole. - Key figures in the development of this paradigm include Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, and Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton Robert Merton introduced three concepts related to social function - manifest functions, the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern - latent functions, largely unrecognized and unintended consequences and - social dysfunctions, undesirable consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society. The influence of this paradigm has declined in recent decades. It focuses on stability, thereby ignoring inequalities of social class race, and gender THE CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE Society is held together by who has power at a moment in time Power allows some to dominate others Dominance leads to conflict Conflict and change are inevitable Conflict holds society together as new alliances are formed and others fail ᄆ SOCIAL CONFLICT The social-conflict paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees Society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change. Most sociologists who favor the conflict paradigm attempt not only to understand society but also to reduce social inequality Key figures in this tradition include Karl Marx, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Wright Mills This paradigm has developed rapidly in recent years. It has several weaknesses. It ignores social unity based on mutual interdependence and shared values. Because it is explicitly political, it cannot claim scientific objectivity. Like the structural-functional paradigm, it envisions society in terms of broad abstractions. SYMBOLIC INTERACTION Individuals construct the nature of their social world through social interaction Social life is possible only because humans can communicate through symbols All human communications take place through the perception and interpretation of symbols How people define situations is important There is a general consensus on how situations are defined We do not respond directly to reality but to the symbolic meanings we attach to the real world The symbolic-interaction paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals. The structural-functional and the social- conflict paradigms share a macro-level orientation, meaning that they focus on broad social structures that shape society as a whole. In contrast, symbolicinteractionism has a micro-level orientation; it focuses on patterns of social interaction in specific settings. Key figures in the development of this paradigm include - George Herbert Mead Erving Goffman George Homans Peter Blau Symbolic interactionism attempts to explain more clearly how individuals actually experience society. However, it has two weaknesses: Its micro-orientation sometimes results in the error of ignoring the influence of larger social structures. By emphasizing what is unique, it risks overlooking the effects of culture, class, gender, and race. Functionalism perspective VIEW OF SOCIETY AND PROCESSES Sees society as a system of parts that work together to maintain the cohesion of the whole system key concepts are - Manifest functions - Latent functions- refer to the unintended and unrecognized consequences or outcomes of a social phenomenon, institution, or action. These functions are often hidden, unintended, or not explicitly stated. They may arise as byproducts or side effects of the manifest functions. - Dysfunctions- Anomie – Lack of the usual social or ethical standards in an individual or group. Conflict Theory Perspective View of society and processes - Sees society as a collection of parts held together by social power Key concepts - Conflict - Dominance - Inequality - Alienation Symbolic Interaction Perspective View of society and processes Sees society as socially constructed by everyday encounters between people Key concepts - Symbols Meaning Significant others Definition of the situation CONCLUSION Sociology as a scientific discipline is dynamic and constantly evolving. As such, its theories and methods are constantly being modified and adapted to changing social situations, that require explanation.