HL Geography Study Guide PDF

OPTION E: LEISURE TOURISM AND SPORT​ 1 OPTION F: FOOD AND HEALTH​ 11 OPTION D: GEOPHYSICAL HAZARDS​...

OPTION E: LEISURE TOURISM AND SPORT​ 1 OPTION F: FOOD AND HEALTH​ 11 OPTION D: GEOPHYSICAL HAZARDS​ 20 Leisure, Tourism, and Sport From the test that she gave us the other day: Paper 1 notes Option D: Examine the importance of physical and human factors in increasing mass movement events Examine how economic and social factors may reduce the vulnerabgitliy of communities to geophysical hazard risks Option E Examine the long term benefits and costs to a country hosting an international sporting event Examine reasons for variations in the spheres of influence for different kinds of leisure facility Option F: Examine how geographic factors affect the rate of diffusion of agricultural innovation OPTION E: LEISURE TOURISM AND SPORT Essay plans:​ Copy of To what extent does participation rates in sports vary by Gender? Copy of International sporting events.docx Copy of Compare and contrast two contries and their sports and leisure activites Copy of Benefits and drawbacks of festivals in temporary locations Evaluate the impact of temporary festivals on surrounding rural areas Economic impacts -​ Coachella brought over $106 million to Indio, California’s economy alone, and $600 million for the entire Coachella Valley (2016) -​ Coachella employed over 4,000 people from local communities in 2012. -​ The government of Indio raised $3.5 million in ticket fees and other taxes → Money can be used for infrastructure or public services  -​ Festivals lead to an increase in crime → E.g. Over 2kg of illicit substances found on-site at Burning Man in 2018 → Local governments need to invest more into law enforcement Environmental impacts -​ Noise pollution from Coachella can reach over 110 decibels -​ Burning Man emits over 100000 tons of CO2 annually → Health issues in local communities commonly called “Playa lung” -​ Driving on the wet playa at Burning Man leaves ecological scars as it disrupts food webs and creates runoff issues as water cannot be absorbed back into the playa → Causes flooding -​ Coachella generates an average of 107 tons of solid waste a day, only 20% of which gets recycled Examine the advantages and disadvantages of the site used for one or more festivals. Burning Man and Coachella Advantages -​ Coachella accessibility → Indio is located in close proximity to major cities such as Los Angeles and San Diego (half-hour drive from Palm Springs and a 2 to 2-and-a-half-hour drive from Downtown Los Angeles or San Diego), making it easily accessible for attendees traveling from different parts of California and beyond. The festival site is also accessible via major highways and airports (including LAX), facilitating transportation to and from the event. -​ Size of site → Black Rock City (site of Burning Man) occupies over 4 square miles to accommodate the size of the festival (73,000 attendees in 2023), -​ Climate → Coachella Valley is extremely arid and has low precipitation in summer/spring with an average precipitation of only 0.05 inches in April (the month Coachella is held) Disadvantages -​ Noise pollution → Coachella’s close proximity to Indio, California is an issue as the festival generates over 110 decibels of noise pollution on average -​ Accessibility of Burning Man → Located in an empty, rural area (Black Rock Desert), only one highway (Highway 34) provides a majority of the access to the main entrance causing significant traffic congestion during the festival.  -​ Climate → Extreme weather conditions (dust storms, high winds, freezing temperatures at night) common at Burning Man as a result of desert climate -​ Soil conditions → Driving on the wet playa at Burning Man leaves ecological scars as it disrupts food webs and creates runoff issues as water cannot be absorbed back into the playa → Causes flooding. Examine the geographic relationship between the hierarchy of teams and the distribution of supporters for one named national sports league. Four main divisions in England's hierarchical system. Premier League, Championship, League One and League Two, 92 Teams. Manchester United is most in the top flight successful with 20 league titles and most insta followers (63 million), supporters from worldwide as billions of people have access to insta around the globe. Prem TV rights also cover a lot of the world. Most watched league in the world with a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people. Each team gets on average 31 million pounds of TV revenue, but Man City, Arsenal, and Man U were the highest-grossing teams in the league, each earning over 200 million GBP per season in TV revenue. 20 teams battle it out for England's most prestigious trophy. Sales of tshirts from Man U: 73 Million. Biggest 6 Clubs: Arsenal, Manchester United, Chelsea, Liverpool, Tottenham, Manchester City. London Clubs: Arsenal (connected with Nigerians due to Kanu and Thierry Henry and Arsene Wenger, who managed for 22 years at Arsenal) Arsenal had asked music artist Louis Dunford to create an anthem to unite fans and he made one called “North London Forever” attracting fans from around the world, Chelsea (connected a lot to Ivory coast, Drogba and Russsians due to Abramovich), Tottenham (South Korean fan base due to Hueng Min Son). Manchester Clubs: Manchester City (linked to mostly recent success and a few famous players like Sergio Aguero), Manchester United (connected with having big names on their team such as Cristiano Ronaldo, Robin van Persie, Sir Alex Ferguson and David Beckham, global icons). Old Trafford is also the largest stadium in England and is also known as the Theatre of Dreams and is a bucket list for any football enthusiast. Liverpool: famous for Beatles and players like Mohammed Salah, attracting many Egyptians due to that. Manager Jürgen Klopp who has recently left was a man who attracted many fans due to people sympathizing with his ideas and how far he brought the club. Most Liverpool fans come from Liverpool. Anfield is known for having the best atmosphere in England and their fanbase at the Kop don’t disappoint with their anthem “You’ll never walk alone” before every game. There are also teams in London that are in lower divisions such as QPR or Barnet or Watford and Millwall, Charlton and Leyton Orient, AFC Wimbledon, Sutton United,etc… These clubs aren’t as well known and then only in England for example Millwall is known for having hard core fans and a bitter rivalry with West Ham. And Watford, QPR and Charlton teams that used to play in the Premier League could be known a little more internationally due to their past success. This is due to limited social media followers and them just not being as successful as other teams and don’t have the monetary funds to compete with the big 6 of the Premier League. When Leiscter won the league in 2016 it was the biggest shock in football history and due to that they were able to sell t shirts and tv rights and become a decent team for the next few years before facing relegation last season. Teams in lower leagues aren’t displayed that much on TV due to monetary reasons and are shown on the 3rd channel of BT Sports, where people don’t normally watch. Advertisements aren’t really made for them and the hype is all around the Premier League. Another way for a lower league team to gain fans is to perform well in the FA Cup, England's most prestigious domestic cup. In this year's edition Coventry in the second division made it to the semi final and almost made it the final after losing on pens to Man U. Maidstone in the 6th division gained a lot of sympathy from fans, as they beat newly promoted Premier League team Ipswich Town to go to the quarter finals, where they would lose 5-0 to Coventry. However this cup is a great way of producing publicity for smaller clubs and every year there is always an underdog story to be excited for. Manchester City's annual revenue earned from a shirt sponsorship deal with Etihad is 67.5 million GBP while Newcastle United only earns around 5 million GBP from its fun88 sponsorship. 6 of the most valuable sponsorship deals belong to the Big 6 teams, all located in cities with a population greater than 500,000. To what extent does tourism as a national development strategy bring economic and social benefits to destination countries? Economic -​ In 2019, the tourism industry supported 330 million jobs worldwide, which is about 10.3% of global employment → Some countries rely even more on tourism for employment → the industry accounted for 90.7% of jobs in Antigua and Barbuda in 2019  -​ While employment brings economic benefits the lack of diversification in employment may be susceptible to changes in global market -​ Gross Domestic Product (GDP) contribution in Saint Lucia declined 71.7 percent, and tourism employment dropped 34.3 per cent, costing 21,800 individuals their jobs in 2020. -​ Women make up 54% of the tourism workforce → Employment may be low-skilled, poorly paid and seasonal -​ Thailand → 70% of tourism income left the country (leakage) → Reliance on TNCs → Displacing local businesses -​ In 2019, tourism generated $180 billion in tax revenues for federal, state, and local governments in the United States -​ Social -​ Investment into protecting cultural heritage sites because of increased tourist expenditure e.g. Wadi-Al-Hitan in Egypt. -​ At the same time UNESCO has expressed concerns about the impact of mass tourism on World Heritage Sites, noting that 72% of these sites report negative effects from tourism, including cultural erosion. -​ Cultural degradation, e.g. in Hawaii where traditional, authentic luaus are being replaced by ones specifically designed for tourists hosted by hotels and other  tourist attractions, which means local people are less able to access local cultural traditions and their culture is being diminished and the perception of their culture will be inaccurate due to stereotypes from very tourist-centered changes of cultural events. -​ Displacement of locals due to price increases and overcrowding e.g. In Venice, Italy, the local population has decreased from 175,000 in 1951 to around 50,000 in recent years due to the pressures of tourism. Draw Diagram → Tourism Multiplier Effect MAJOR INTERNATIONAL SPORTS EVENT: 3 Facts about the event… When? Where? Describe location and insert a map Why there? - give 3 reasons why this place was chosen (What power does this event give the hosting nation?) Overall GOAL of the Event (other than sports!): COSTS BENEFITS Economic EXPENSES EMPLOYMENT Benefit: Overall, FIFA recorded a positive Of the total number of jobs associated with the four-year result of USD 338 million. The event World Cup, 710,000 are permanent and 200,000 has also brought $13.4 billion into the country's are temporary, and all are in the official labour economy market Cost: This result is based on total revenue of USD 5,718 million and total expenditure of USD 5,380 million. E.g. Stadium: Estadio Nacional Mane E.g. 1 million jobs were created for the world cup. Garrincha cost around 900 million to construct. Indirect Economic Costs: Economic Indirect Benefits/ Spinoffs INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENT Increased Foreign Investment: The global Brazil invested US$ 18.7 billion in infrastructure spotlight on Brazil during the World Cup for the 2014 World Cup. showcased the country as a viable destination for 8 people died during construction foreign investment. The event demonstrated Brazil’s ability to host large-scale international events, boosting investor confidence and attracting foreign capital in various sectors. E.g. 12 billion invested in smaller cities such E.g. received 361.2 billion dollars in 2015 in FDI as Manaus or Salvador Political and Cultural PRESSURE PRESTIGE (Political Image) The financial burden of hosting the World Cup The World Cup put Brazil in the global spotlight, was immense, with estimates of total costs showcasing the country to millions of viewers exceeding $11 billion. This expenditure placed worldwide. This enhanced Brazil’s international significant strain on Brazil’s economy, diverting profile and solidified its reputation as a major funds from other critical areas such as player in global sports and events. The event healthcare, education, and social services. The allowed Brazil to highlight its rich cultural heritage, need to build and upgrade infrastructure, from music and dance to cuisine and festivals. including stadiums, transportation networks, This cultural exposure helped to promote a and hospitality facilities, created intense positive image of Brazil and attract international pressure to meet deadlines and standards. interest in Brazilian culture and traditions. This often resulted in rushed construction projects and concerns about quality and safety. E.g. The construction of the Arena da E.g. A total of 3.43 million people watched the 64 Amazônia in Manaus, one of the most games of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil live expensive stadiums, cost around $300 million. in the stadium. Post-World Cup, the stadium has struggled to find consistent use, illustrating the financial burden and questionable long-term economic benefit. In Rio de Janeiro, the renovation of the Maracanã Stadium cost approximately $500 million. The project faced delays and increased costs, which put pressure on the local and federal governments to complete the work on time. OVERALL LEGACY (SUSTAINABILITY) Improvements in Transportation: Significant The total cost of hosting the World Cup exceeded investments were made in public $11 billion, a significant burden on public finances. transportation, including new bus rapid transit Many of the investments, particularly in stadiums, (BRT) systems, airport upgrades, and road have faced criticism for being overly expensive. improvements, particularly in major cities like The high costs have contributed to long-term debt Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Several new for the country, impacting public budgets for years stadiums and sports facilities were constructed or renovated, contributing to the improvement of sports infrastructure in the country. 4300k of Many of the anticipated long-term benefits, such roads have been improved. as sustained tourism growth and long-term economic boosts, have been debated and, in The event created numerous jobs in some cases, have not materialised as expected. construction, hospitality, transportation, and The ongoing maintenance costs for the new services sectors, providing short-term infrastructure have been a financial burden on employment opportunities. Local businesses, local governments, with some facilities remaining especially in tourism and hospitality, benefited underutilised. from the influx of visitors and increased spending.  E.g. World Cup generated 2.7m tonnes E.g. UNEP and Brazil’s Ministries of Environment, of CO2 emissions Sports, Tourism, and Social Development have teamed up to create and promote Green Passport Tours which promotes sustainable tourism This year’s World Cup has exceeded CO2 specifically for World Cup 2014. FIFA’s head of emissions of the last World Cup in South Africa corporate social responsibility, Federico Addiechi, by over 1 million tons of CO2 with a total of 2.7 pledges to offset 100% of the 2.7 million tons of million tons. According to a study done by CO2 emissions starting next summer with FIFA, an estimated 60% of the CO2 emissions programs in reforestation and investment in wind are produced by transportation of personnel, energy and hydroelectric power. equipment, teams, and fans coming from all over the world. Measures have been made to help prevent and offset the environmental impact such as building stadiums that run on solar power, rainwater collection facilities, and a large recycling program, but with any event on a scale and this grand is always a large environmental toll. Inclusivity in big tournaments: (World Cup, Olympics, Paralympics,etc.) The movement has grown dramatically since its early days – for example, the number of athletes participating in the Summer Paralympic Games has increased from 400 athletes in Rome in 1960 to 4,342 athletes from 159 countries in Rio de Janeiro in 2016 Today, the Paralympic Games are the world's third biggest sport event in terms of ticket sales The introduction of the Paralympic games means that the disabled population now has an opportunity to shine on their own stage. 169 countries represented in the 2024 version The number of women competing at the Olympic Games has increased significantly – from 34 per cent of the total at Atlanta 1996 to a new record of 50 percent at Paris 2024 In October 2018, the Youth Olympic Games Buenos Aires 2018 were the first fully gender-balanced Olympic event ever. The Summer Olympics have grown from 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896, to more than 11,300 competitors representing 206 nations in 2020 National income per capita plays a bigger role than population in determining a nation’s success at the Olympics. People’s ability to reach their athletic potential depends upon the opportunities afforded them to train in world-class facilities with top coaching, and these opportunities tend to be more prevalent in countries that are richer. → As countries develop they do better at the Olympics e.g: China ➔​ Countries can also be put on the big stage if their athletes are able to get a gold medal e.g: Saint Lucia in 2024 Olympics Possible Questions Examine why views may differ on the benefits of tourism as a development strategy. To what extent does tourism as a national development strategy bring economic and social benefits to destination countries? OPTION F: FOOD AND HEALTH Food and Health Essay plans: Copy of The Power different stakeholders have in influencing diets and health TNCs ​ The role of globalisations and TNCs in changing diets of countries and causing negative health effects can be seen in Mexico, where sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) and other ultra processed foods introduced and marketed into the country by TNCs like Coca-Cola have fuelled a health crisis that lead to an excessive health burden of overweight and obese individuals (which reached 70% of adults and 30% of children in 2012) and a high prevalence of obesity. SSBs represent 70% of total added sugars in the average Mexican diet. ​ Turkey tails are a cheap, fatty meat, imported into many developing countries. In the 1950s, US poultry firms began dumping turkey tails, along with chicken backs, into markets in Samoa. Cheap imported foods (mass-produced by TNCs) like turkey tails began displacing traditional foods and by 2007 the average Samoan was consuming more than 20 kilos of turkey tails every year. ​ TNCs increased foreign direct investment (FDI) in food sectors, from under $10 billion in 1992 to over $40 billion in 2007. This surge allows multinational food manufacturers to expand in LICs, introducing processed foods and encouraging shifts from traditional diets. In 2012 TNCs spent $4.6 billion on advertising fast-food ​ TNC-driven supermarkets now handle 50-60% of retail food in Latin America and other regions, where they offer processed foods at lower prices. For example, in Brazil, supermarket prices for processed foods are up to 40% lower than traditional stores, making them more attractive to local consumers. ​ TNCs increase the share of processed foods in exports, rising from 54% to 69% for high-income countries and from 49% to 67% for Asia (1970s to 2000s). This growth provides low-income countries access to low-cost, high-calorie processed foods, encouraging dietary shifts that often include energy-dense products. ​ Growth of McDonald’s restaurants from 951 stores in the Asia Pacific region in 1987 to 7 135 in 2002; since then, the numbers have continued to rise, though more slowly. Pepsico, another global food and beverage corporation, tripled its sales outside North America and Mexico  between 2000 and 2007. ​ Nestle is a vertically integrated agribusiness, employing approximately 281,000 people in some 443 factories worldwide. Governments/International Organizations ​ In Mexico, a sugar tax introduced in 2014 led to a 6.3% reduction in the observed purchases of SSBs in 2014 compared with the expected purchases in that same year based on trends from 2008 to 2012. These reductions were higher among lower-income households, residents living in urban areas, and households with children. There was also a 16.2% increase in water purchases that was higher in low- and middle-income households, in urban areas, and among households with adults only. ​ Subsidies for corn—the most abundant crop in the United States—have far surpassed those for any other crop, estimated to have totaled more than $116 billion since 1995 → high fructose corn syrup consumption increased 1000% from 1970 to 1995 and continues to increase today (leading to an increase in obesity from 15% in 1970 to 40.3% in 2024) ​ The Eatwell Guide (EWG) was developed by the UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA) in partnership with the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition → One study found 10% of the British schoolchildren studied didn’t meet any of the nine EWG dietary recommendations, about 25% only met one and on average 65% met fewer than three EWG recommendations. ​ Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) assists Member Countries to develop, revise and implement food-based dietary guidelines and food guides in line with current scientific evidence. Local Communities -​ 1.2 million people in the UK are living in low income areas where households struggle to buy affordable fresh fruit and vegetables, according to a new study. Researchers are describing these areas as ‘food deserts’ where people are likely to pay a higher cost for their weekly food shopping and have to shop in more expensive small convenience stores with a limited stock of good value fresh products. -​ In a UK study, researchers assessed the contents of lunches eaten by more than 3,300 primary and secondary schoolchildren, as recorded in the national diet and nutrition survey between 2007 and 2018. Overall, ultra-processed foods accounted for 82% of calories in packed lunches and 64% in school meals. Examine how governments and other stakeholders can affect the severity of famine. Governments -​ Can both increase and decrease the severity of famine. -​ In Yemen, conflict between the Presidential Leadership Council and Houthi rebel forces have significantly worsened the severity of famine → The total direct damages and losses of the agricultural sector in Yemen since the beginning of the war amount to about 111 billion dollars -​ Yemen’s agriculture sector currently supplies only 15-20% of staple foods despite approximately 3 in every 4 Yemenis relying on agriculture to survive -​ Other national governments may also worsen the severity of famine – Saudi Arabian hard blockade of about all the air, sea ports and land of Yemen → Worsens famine since Yemen imports 90% of its food supply -​ Media and international pressure to lift blockade -​ During the Tigray War, the Ethiopian federal government blocked food and humanitarian aid from entering the region as a weaponization of hunger -​ At the same time, some Ethiopian government programs worked to lessen the severity of hunger → Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) in Ethiopia is aimed at enabling the rural poor facing chronic food insecurity to resist shocks, create assets and become food self-sufficient (reaches nine million Ethiopians in vulnerable communities and averts famine) Other Stakeholders -​ International organizations play a significant role in both short- and long-term aid, e.g. in the short-term UNDP had supported over 275,000 women and 404,000 children with cash-for-nutrition services in Yemen while in the long-term they have also rehabilitated over 24,000 hectares of agricultural lands and has also helped nearly 3,100 households to start their own home gardens → short-term reduces death toll of famine and the long-term helps build resiliency. -​ Short-term aid may create dependence on aid → In the case of Somalia, aid dependency is particularly high, with aid accounting for more than 50% of the country's GDP -​ Estimated two-thirds of bilateral aid to Somalia is stolen or diverted and is unaccounted for by government -​ Warlords and local contractors as a stakeholder may increase corruption -​ NGOs can help individuals on a local-scale access nutrition in the short-term and build resiliency in the long-term → e.g. In Mali, CARE partnered with local  farmers to create community food banks to store surplus harvest -​ However, NGOs depend on government cooperation, if entry visas or shipments of food are denied they lack power → Close to 1.1 million people were denied crucial humanitarian assistance in Sudan during May 2024 because of institutional interference. -​ Media can play a role in highlighting severity of famine and pressuring governments to allow more aid and for individuals to donate more to NGOs providing aid What is the problem? Outline the extent of the problem in 6 points. Widespread Hunger: Over 17 million people in Yemen face acute food insecurity, with millions more at risk, making it one of the worst humanitarian crises globally. Malnutrition Crisis: Approximately 2.2 million children suffer from acute malnutrition, including 500,000 who are severely malnourished, leading to high child mortality rates. The ongoing conflict, which began in 2015, has devastated agriculture, infrastructure, and supply chains, limiting access to food and escalating prices. Economic Collapse: The collapse of Yemen’s economy, high unemployment, and lack of access to income have worsened purchasing power, leaving many unable to afford basic necessities. Blockades and Displacement: Blockades on ports and roads have restricted imports (including 90% of Yemen’s food supply), while displacement of millions has further strained already scarce resources. Limited Humanitarian Access: Humanitarian aid efforts are severely hampered by the conflict, with many regions, especially rural areas, inaccessible due to security concerns, leaving vulnerable populations without adequate support Why is the population vulnerable to food insecurity?. The ongoing civil war has destroyed infrastructure, disrupted agricultural production, and blocked supply routes, severely limiting access to food. Conflict also causes displacement, pushing families away from their livelihoods and homes. Yemen’s economy has collapsed due to the war, leading to high unemployment, loss of income, and hyperinflation. With reduced purchasing power, many households cannot afford basic necessities, including food. Yemen imports about 90% of its food, making it highly vulnerable to disruptions in supply chains. Blockades, port closures, and fuel shortages have drastically reduced the availability of food and increased prices, worsening the food crisis. Who is Helped by Whom? The primary beneficiaries are Yemeni families and individuals who are experiencing acute food insecurity due to the ongoing conflict and economic collapse. International and local NGOs, such as the World Food Programme (WFP) and other aid agencies, implement and manage these cash transfer programs. By increasing the purchasing power of recipients, these programs also benefit local markets and businesses, helping to stimulate economic activity in communities. How is the Solution Implemented? Humanitarian organizations assess the needs of affected populations and identify eligible households based on criteria such as income level, family size, and food insecurity status. Cash transfers are distributed directly to beneficiaries through electronic payment systems, bank accounts, or mobile money platforms, ensuring efficient and secure delivery of funds. Recipients use the funds to buy food and other necessities from local markets, which helps support local vendors and businesses. Programs are regularly monitored and evaluated to ensure that the aid is effective, adjusting the approach as needed to address any challenges or gaps. Discuss the positives, & possible negatives and limitations of this approach here. Positives: Cash transfers give recipients the autonomy to choose what they need most, whether it’s food, medicine, or other essentials, which can be more efficient than distributing specific items. By increasing purchasing power, cash transfers can boost local markets and support small businesses, contributing to economic recovery in affected areas Negatives: In situations where markets are already fragile, an influx of cash can sometimes lead to inflation, driving up prices and potentially negating the benefits of the assistance. The distribution of cash, especially in conflict zones, can pose security risks. There is also a potential for fraud and misuse of funds, which requires robust monitoring systems. Cash transfers may not reach all individuals in need due to logistical challenges, targeting issues, or limitations in infrastructure, leaving some vulnerable populations underserved. Cash transfer programs represent a valuable and adaptable solution for addressing food insecurity, especially in crisis situations like Yemen's. They offer numerous advantages, such as empowering recipients, stimulating local economies, and being more flexible and dignified compared to in-kind aid. Conflict/peace recovery, Aid/education, UNDP (helping women in Yemen) spend 6 hours collecting water, Rainwater harvesting, Diverse diets, Better strategies for higher yields, Food stamps, Ban on food export, GMO crops, Irrigation channels, Watershed pactiles, Spate irrigation, Clean sewage (updating facilities), Women + girls (seed + fertilizer training), Renewable energy (e.g solar) ​ main source of income for rural Yemenis who account for 70 per cent of the country’s 30 million people. ​ In 2021 alone, UNDP Yemen has supported the rehabilitation and maintenance of water and sanitation facilities in Aden and Mukalla cities that benefited over 130,000 people – 51 per cent of whom are women. ​ With 50 per cent women benefiting, UNDP supported the rehabilitation of over 24,000 hectares of agricultural lands. And last year, 750 women farmers were trained on how to use seedlings and fertilizers, as well as productive agriculture inputs. ​ benefit nearly 4,000 women ​ To support food security of vulnerable households, UNDP has also helped nearly 3,100 households to start their own home gardens – benefiting nearly 1,500 women. UNDP also supported over 275,000 women and 404,000 children with cash-for-nutrition services. ​ supporting 185,000 households accessing clean energy sources for lighting and other purposes, including 28 per cent women-headed households. ​ An estimated 17 million people or around 60% of the population are facing crisis level or acute food insecurity conditions as of March 2023. Currently, Yemen’s agriculture sector supplies only 15-20% of its staple food needs ​ ​ Comprehensive Case Study 1: Issues Affecting Famine in Yemen/Somalia Detailed Data ​ Extent of Malnutrition: ○​ Chronic malnutrition affects 60% of children under five, with acute malnutrition impacting nearly 2 million children​​. ○​ Child stunting and wasting rates surpass emergency thresholds​​. ​ Food Access: ○​ Over 20 million Yemenis (two-thirds of the population) are food insecure, with 10 million on the brink of famine​​. ​ Economic Indicators: ○​ The currency devaluation has caused food prices to skyrocket. Staple food prices are 150%-200% higher than pre-conflict levels​. ○​ Over 43% of the population lives below the poverty line, with limited access to employment​. ​ Water Scarcity: ○​ Annual water withdrawal exceeds sustainable levels by 30%. Projections estimate total groundwater depletion by 2040​. ○​ Agricultural water use constitutes 90% of consumption, with inefficiencies and outdated irrigation practices​. Expanded Reasons 1.​ Physical Challenges: ○​ Arid climate with highly variable rainfall patterns results in prolonged droughts and flash floods, reducing agricultural yields​​. ○​ Rising temperatures and soil salinity from coastal aquifer degradation further limit arable land​. 2.​ Human Factors: ○​ Conflict: Protracted war has destroyed critical infrastructure, displaced millions, and disrupted local agricultural and food supply chains​​. ○​ Governance Failures: Weak institutions and lack of political stability hinder effective food security policies​. ○​ Economic Collapse: The loss of remittances and restricted access to labor markets, especially in Saudi Arabia, have drastically reduced household incomes​. In-Depth Meaning ​ Health Consequences: ○​ Stunting and wasting among children reduce physical and cognitive development, perpetuating cycles of poverty and poor health​​.  ○​ Vulnerability to disease increases due to malnutrition and lack of medical care, exacerbating mortality rates​​. ​ Economic Impacts: ○​ Decreased agricultural productivity leads to higher dependency on imports, worsening the trade deficit​. ○​ Rising unemployment and economic instability reinforce systemic poverty​. ​ Social Disruption: ○​ Widespread displacement stresses already resource-poor host communities, increasing tension and social fragmentation​​. Expanded Solutions 1.​ Short-Term Interventions: ○​ Humanitarian Aid: Increase food distributions via the World Food Programme (WFP) and reduce logistical barriers to aid delivery​​. ○​ Emergency Nutrition Programs: Provide fortified foods, therapeutic feeding, and vaccination campaigns to address child malnutrition​​. 2.​ Mid-Term Solutions: ○​ Agricultural Reforms: ​ Expand adoption of drought-resistant crops and water-efficient farming techniques. ​ Rehabilitate irrigation systems to reduce water loss​​. ○​ Infrastructure Development: ​ Rebuild roads, storage facilities, and markets to improve food distribution​. 3.​ Long-Term Strategies: ○​ Conflict Resolution: International mediation efforts to establish peace and stabilize governance. ○​ Economic Diversification: Develop industries outside agriculture to reduce dependency and provide alternative livelihoods​​. Comprehensive Case Study 2: Food Insecurity in Yemen/Somalia Detailed Data ​ Prevalence: ○​ Yemen has some of the highest global rates of food insecurity, with over 20 million people facing acute shortages​​. ​ Malnutrition Indicators: ○​ Nearly 60% of preschool children suffer chronic malnutrition. ○​ Child wasting exceeds 15%, classified as a severe public health emergency​​. ​ Conflict Impacts: ○​ Blockades disrupt imports of 70%-90% of Yemen’s food supply. ○​ Damage to port facilities and key infrastructure further exacerbates scarcity​.  ​ Economic Context: ○​ Collapse of Yemen’s economy, exacerbated by high inflation and reduced remittances, limits purchasing power​​. ​ Agricultural Challenges: ○​ Loss of arable land due to salinization and erosion reduces domestic food production​​. Expanded Reasons 1.​ Physical Drivers: ○​ Desertification and declining rainfall in key agricultural zones reduce crop yields. ○​ Rising sea levels and salinity intrusion threaten coastal agricultural regions​​. 2.​ Human Drivers: ○​ Prolonged displacement disrupts rural economies and agricultural practices. ○​ Governance failures hinder effective responses to food insecurity​​. In-Depth Meaning ​ Humanitarian Crisis: ○​ Yemen’s food insecurity has resulted in one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises, with millions at risk of starvation​​. ​ Economic Dependence: ○​ High reliance on imported food exacerbates vulnerability to global market fluctuations​​. Expanded Solutions 1.​ Immediate Relief: ○​ Scale up cash-transfer programs to increase household purchasing power for local food​. ○​ Enhance coordination among international organizations for more efficient aid delivery​​. 2.​ Resilience Building: ○​ Introduce localized food production systems, such as urban agriculture and community gardens​. ○​ Train farmers in conservation agriculture and provide access to improved seeds and fertilizers​. 3.​ Policy Measures: ○​ Support fair trade policies and reduce tariffs on imported agricultural equipment​. ○​ Strengthen regional cooperation for resource sharing and sustainable development​​. Comprehensive List of Definitions General Terms 1.​ Food Security: The state where all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet dietary needs for a healthy and active life​​. 2.​ Food Insecurity: A situation of limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or limited ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways​. 3.​ Hunger: A condition in which a person is unable to eat enough food to meet basic nutritional needs​. 4.​ Famine: An extreme scarcity of food that results in widespread malnutrition, starvation, and mortality, meeting specific criteria such as: ○​ At least 20% of households facing extreme food shortages. ○​ Acute malnutrition affecting more than 30% of children. ○​ Death rates exceeding two per 10,000 people per day​. Nutrition-Related Terms 5.​ Malnutrition: A condition resulting from an unbalanced diet, including both undernutrition and overnutrition​. 6.​ Undernutrition: A form of malnutrition where the intake of calories, protein, or essential nutrients is insufficient​. 7.​ Overnutrition: Excessive intake of calories or nutrients, often leading to obesity​. 8.​ Stunting: Chronic malnutrition resulting in reduced growth in children, particularly height-for-age​. 9.​ Wasting: Acute malnutrition characterized by low weight-for-height​. 10.​Nutrition Transition: The shift in dietary consumption patterns from traditional diets high in cereals and fiber to diets high in sugars, fats, and animal-source foods, typically associated with economic development​. Agriculture and Food Systems 11.​Arable Farming: Farming that involves the cultivation of crops on fertile land​​. 12.​Pastoral Farming: The rearing of animals for products such as meat, milk, and wool​​. 13.​Commercial Farming: Farming for profit, often involving large-scale operations​​. 14.​Subsistence Farming: Farming where crops and livestock are produced primarily for the farmer's own use, with little surplus for sale​​. 15.​Agro-Industrialization: Large-scale, intensive farming operations involving high inputs and outputs, typically controlled by transnational corporations (TNCs)​​. 16.​Sustainable Farming: Agricultural practices designed to meet current needs without compromising resources for future generations​​.  17.​Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER): A measure of the ratio between useful agricultural output and energy inputs. Farms with an EER ≥1 are considered energy-efficient​. 18.​Water Footprint: The total amount of water required to produce a good or service, including green (rainwater), blue (irrigation), and grey (pollution treatment) water​. Global Indicators 19.​Global Hunger Index (GHI): A composite score based on undernourishment, child wasting, child stunting, and child mortality, used to measure and track hunger globally​. 20.​Food Security Index: A multi-component index measuring food affordability, availability, and quality across countries​. 21.​Calories Per Capita: A measure of the average calorie intake per person in a given area, often used as an indicator of nutritional sufficiency​. Spread of Innovations and Diseases 22.​Diffusion: The spread of ideas, technologies, or diseases from their point of origin to other areas​​. 23.​Expansion Diffusion: The spread of innovations outward from a central area while remaining strong in its origin​. 24.​Relocation Diffusion: The spread of innovations through the physical movement of individuals​. 25.​Barriers to Diffusion: Factors that hinder the spread of innovations, including physical (mountains, climate), economic (cost), political (policies), and social (cultural resistance) barriers​. Diseases and Health Indicators 26.​Incidence of Disease: The frequency or rate of new cases of a disease in a population during a specific time​. 27.​Prevalence of Disease: The proportion of a population with a specific disease at a given time​. 28.​Epidemic: An outbreak of disease that spreads rapidly and affects a large number of people​. 29.​Pandemic: The worldwide spread of a new disease​. 30.​Diseases of Poverty: Diseases associated with low-income populations, often including infectious diseases and those related to malnutrition​. 31.​Diseases of Affluence: Non-communicable diseases linked to high-income lifestyles, such as diabetes and coronary heart disease​. Possible Questions? Examine how governments and other stakeholders can affect the severity of famine. Examine how different factors have contributed to famine in one or more countries or areas. OPTION D: GEOPHYSICAL HAZARDS Geophysical Hazards: Maybe Essay Qs? Examine how social and economic strategies may reduce people’s vulnerability to earthquake hazard events. Examine how different human factors can affect community vulnerability to one or more geophysical hazards. Economic -​ Poverty – Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere with a GNI per capita of 3,260 PPP dollars and more than half the population lives below the poverty line —> poor construction and infrastructure leading to more vulnerability -​ Compared to Christchurch 2011 (similar magnitude) where only 181 people were killed and around 2,000 people were injured, Haiti’s was far more severe with 220,000 people estimated to have died; 300,000+ people were injured. Difference in GNI per capita → New Zealand = 52,750 PPP dollars -​ Prepared for economic damage better too – New Zealand's Earthquake Commission cover for domestic premises entitles the holder to up to NZ$100,000 plus tax after earthquake -​ Haiti 2010 – Vulnerability to earthquakes. Urban planning – buildings built in area along a fault line Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system and in the ‘hurricane belt’ → not earthquake safe and earthquakes may be coupled with other disasters that make (re)building infrastructure and increasing coping capacity difficult (spending on rebuilding rather than building coping capacity) -​ Communication systems → During the magnitude 9.0 earthquake in Japan in 2011, alerts were sent to several million people near the epicentre about 15 to 20 seconds before severe shaking began. Around 85% of Japan’s population owns a smartphone whereas only around 65.5% Haitians do. Demographic/Social -​ 32.78% of Haiti’s population under 14 whereas only 18.3% in New Zealand. Higher child population is more vulnerable to earthquake both in terms of life and education (schools being closed/destroyed)  -​ The average Haitian, age 25 years or older, has less than five years of schooling → Less awareness of prevention techniques and therefore more vulnerability -​ Dense clustering of population in urban areas susceptible to earthquakes → nearly a third of Haiti’s national population lives in Port-au-Prince → especially vulnerable when considering 74% of Haiti's urban population is estimated to live in slums Case study: Haiti