Health Psychology Final Exam Study Guide PDF

Health Psychology Study Guide ch.1 Define the term health psychology. How people stay healthy. Why they become ill. How they respond when they get ill. Be able to understand different ways health psychologists do their job. For example, where do they work and what kind of duties...

Health Psychology Study Guide ch.1 Define the term health psychology. How people stay healthy. Why they become ill. How they respond when they get ill. Be able to understand different ways health psychologists do their job. For example, where do they work and what kind of duties might they perform? Health promotion and maintenance. Prevention and treatment of illness. Etiology and correlates of health, illness, and dysfunction. Etiology: Origins or causes of illness. Improvement of the health care system and formulation of health policy. Describe how a health psychologist might assist a patient undergoing an extensive operation/surgery. Know the terms and definitions related to epidemiology and etiology Epidemiology: Study of the frequency, distribution, and causes of infectious and noninfectious disease in a population Etiology: Origins or causes of illness. Describe the changing philosophical perspectives on the mind-body relationship from the time of ancient cultures to the present day. Ancient Greeks: Humoral theory of illness. Diseases resulted when the four humors, or circulating fluids of the body, were out of balance. Four humors associated with personality types. Blood: Passionate temperament. Black bile: Sadness. Yellow bile: Angry disposition. Phlegm: Laid-back approach to life. Middle Ages: Disease regarded as God’s punishment. Renaissance to present day: Enhanced scientific knowledge and assessment. Practice is dependent on laboratory findings and reported or observed bodily factors. Diagnosis and treatment are based on organic and cellular pathology. Compare the biomedical and biopsychosocial models of health. Biomedical: All illnesses can be explained through aberrant somatic bodily processes, such as biochemical imbalances or neurophysiological abnormalities Assumes that psychological and social processes are largely irrelevant to the disease process. Health and illness are consequences of the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors. Advantages. Maintains that the macro level and micro level processes continually interact to influence health and illness. Emphasizes both health and illness. Describe Freud’s contribution to the field of psychosomatic medicine. Conversion Hysteria: Specific unconscious conflicts produce physical disturbances symbolizing repressed psychological conflicts Explain the clinical implications of the biopsychosocial model. Understanding the interacting role of biological, psychological, and social factors informs diagnosis. Emphasis on the relationship between patient and their practitioner, which improves : Patient’s use of services. Efficacy of treatment. Rapidity with which illness is resolved. Describe the changing patterns of illness in the United States. Describe the research methodologies employed by health psychologists. Describe the different methodological tools that are used in health psychology research. Tools of neuroscience. Functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) permits glimpses into the brain Have helped improve the knowledge of the autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immune systems Mobi e and wireless technologies. Used to deliver interventions. Can be used to assess biological indicators (for example, blood sugar ). Identify and describe the structure and function of the peripheral and autonomic nervous systems. PNS=rest of nerves in the body Somatic Nervous System ◦ Connects nerve fibers to voluntary muscles, and provides feedback to the brain about voluntary movement (think kicking a ball) Autonomic Nervous System Connects CNS (brain, spinal cord) to all organs outside of human control (think heart) Regulated by: Sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight) Parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest) Differentiate between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems and describe their Functions. Sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight) Parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest) Differentiate between the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. Medulla: Regulates heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration. Pons: Helps control respiration. Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary muscle movement and the maintenance of: ◦ Balance and equilibrium. ◦ Muscle tone and posture. Midbrain Responsible for the coordination of visual and auditory reflexes. Be familiar with epilepsy. Epilepsy: a chronic brain disease that causes seizures, which are episodes of abnormal electrical activity in the brain Describe the structure and functions of the endocrine system. Made up of ductless glands that secrete hormones into the blood, stimulating changes in target organs. Regulated by: Hypothalamus Pituitary gland: Consists of the posterior pituitary lobe and the anterior pituitary lobe. Diabetes involves this system duh Differentiate between the thalamus and the hypothalamus and describe their functions. The thalamus: acts as a gatekeeper for messages passed between the spinal cord and the cerebrum The hypothalamus: controls emotions. It also regulates your body's temperature and controls functions such as eating or sleeping. Describe the functions of the adrenal glands and their role in the endocrine system. produce hormones that help regulate your metabolism, immune system, blood pressure, response to stress and other essential functions Describe the structure and function of the heart and identify common disorders of the cardiovascular system. Angina pectoris (chest pain): The heart has an insufficient supply of oxygen or inadequate removal of carbon dioxide and other waste products. Myocardial infarction or MI (heart attack): A clot in a coronary vessel blocks the flow of blood to the heart. Ischemia: Lack of blood flow and oxygen to the Heart. Atherosclerosis: Arteries are narrowed by plaques formed from deposits of cholesterol and other substances Left atrium and left ventricle: Take in oxygenated blood from the lungs and pump it out into the aorta. Right atrium and right ventricle: Pump blood back to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. Cardiac cycle: Regular rhythmic phases of contraction and relaxation. Phases: systole and diastole Describe the structure and function of the renal system and identify common disorders of the renal system. Kidneys: Regulate bodily fluids. Produce urine, which maintains water balance, blood pH, and electrolyte balance. Ureters: Move urine to the bladder. Urinary bladder: Acts as a reservoir for urine. Urethra: Conducts urine from the bladder out of the body. Urinary tract infections. Glomerular nephritis. (inflammation of tiny filters in kidneys) Tubular necrosis., Kidney failure: Could require an artificial kidney, a kidney transplant, or kidney dialysis. Technologies now used to cleanse the blood to remove excess salts, water, and metabolites. Define health promotion and describe the factors that have fueled the movement toward health promotion in the United States. Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, their health. Describe the role of behavioral factors in disease and disorder. Nearly half the deaths in the United States are caused by preventable factors. The four main causes: smoking. obesity. drug abuse. problem drinking. Define health behaviors, health habits, and primary prevention. Health behaviors: Undertaken by people to enhance or maintain their health. Health habit: Healthy behavior that is firmly established and performed automatically, without awareness. primary prevention: Taking measures to combat risk factors for illness before it has a chance to develop Summarize the relationship of individual difference variables, social factors, emotional factors, cognitive factors, perceived symptoms, and factors related to access to medical care to health behaviors. Describe the basic principles of cognitive-behavioral therapy. Uses complementary methods to intervene in the modification of a target problem and its context. Self-monitoring: Understanding the dimensions of one’s poor health habits before change can begin. Assess the frequency of a target behavior and its antecedents and consequences. Stages. ◦ Learning to discriminate the target behavior. ◦ Charting the behavior: Helps in identifying the discriminative stimulus Define discriminative stimulus and describe its use in cognitive-behavioral therapy. Stimulus-control interventions involve: Ridding the environment of discriminative stimuli that evoke the problem behavior. Creating new discriminative stimuli, signaling that a new response will be reinforced. Define relaxation training and describe its use in cognitive-behavioral therapy. Relaxation training: Involves deep breathing and progressive muscle relaxation Define motivational interviewing and describe its use in cognitive-behavioral therapy The goal is to help clients express their positive or negative thoughts regarding behavior in an atmosphere that is free of negative evaluation. The interviewer adopts a nonjudgmental, nonconfrontational, encouraging, and supportive style. Explain the effect of the mass-media on changing health behaviors and getting the message out. Venues for health habit modification. Workplace interventions. Community-based interventions. The mass media. Cellular phones and landlines. The Internet. Describe the benefits of regular exercise. Efficient use of health promotion dollars. Diseases may be prevented altogether. Makes it easier to identify other risk factors How do we promote exercise behaviors? Take steps to reduce accidents. Control alcohol consumption and eliminate smoking. Reduce inappropriate use of prescription drugs. Obtain a flu shot. Reduce frailty and remain socially engaged. Maintain a healthy, balanced diet and exercise regimen. Describe the transtheoretical model and its relation to all interventions Stages of change: Precontemplation. Contemplation. Preparation. Action. Maintenance. What are the causes of premature death? Which ones are preventable? Unintentional Injuries. On the road: failure to wear seat belts. In the home: falls, poison, fire. Chronic lower respiratory diseases. Tobacco use, environmental factors (pollution, radon, asbestos). Stroke. High blood pressure, tobacco use, diabetes, high cholesterol, physical inactivity, obesity. Nearly half the deaths in the United States are caused by preventable factors. The four main causes: smoking. obesity. drug abuse. problem drinking. Review the slides on mammogram screening. Know what age women should start screening and how frequently? Every two years at age 40 important for older and high-risk women because of: Prevalence of breast cancer. Its cost-effectiveness. Improved chances of survival when detected early. Describe what are risk factors of skin cancer. How do we decrease our risk for skin cancer? Skin cancer: Primary risk factor is excessive exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation Measures to promote safe sun practices. Educational interventions. Teaching about effective sunscreen usage. For adolescents and young adults, stress gains (for example, improvements in appearance) rather than risks When people are under stress, how does that affect their eating behaviors? Are distracted. May not have self-control. May not pay attention to their diet. May eat for comfort Review the slides on deep sleep (also make sure to get sufficient sleep before our exam!). Restores energy, Strengthens the immune system, and Prompts the body to release growth hormone. REM: Eyes move back and forth, breathing and heart rate vary, and dreams occur. Marked by beta waves. Important for Solving problems, Consolidating memories, Turning knowledge into long-term memories. Roughly 40% of adults sleep less than 7 hours a night and one-third experience sleep problems. Insufficient sleep affects: Cognitive functioning. Mood. Job performance. Quality of life. General health. Identify the different brain waves associated with sleep. After reading I would suggest watching a video online about the stages. Please come up with a good mnemonic and feel free to post this in the discussion section. Review the section on health-compromising behaviors and adolescence. Marijuana use. Obesity. Eating disorders. Alcoholism and problem drinking. Smoking. Habitual and addictive, Window of vulnerability in adolescence. Influenced by peer pressure. Pleasurable and helps cope with stress. Develop gradually. Have similar causative factors. Common in the lower social classes. What is an example of a potent risk factor for cardiovascular diseases? Obesity and type 2 diabetes Describe the effects of weight loss using cognitive behavioral therapy. Yo-yo dieting: Successive cycles of dieting and weight gain. Enhances the efficiency of food use. Lowers metabolic rate. Set point theory of weight: Each individual has an ideal biological weight, which cannot be greatly modified. Think thermostat! Define the terms binge eating and anorexia nervosa. Binge eating may be triggered by negative emotions produced by stressful experiences. Anorexia nervosa: Obsessive disorder amounting to self-starvation. Body weight is well below optimum level Know the effects of alcohol consumption on mood and anxiety. High blood pressure. Stroke. Cirrhosis of the liver. Certain forms of cancer. Brain atrophy.  Sleep disorders. Causes anxiety, irritability, intense cravings for the substance, nausea, headaches, tremors, and hallucinations. Define synergistic and understand its relationship to addiction and health. Weight and smoking can interact to increase mortality. Smoking and depression can interact to substantially increase the risk for cancer. Smoking is related to anxiety in adolescence. Men: nicotine increases heart rate reactivity to stress. Women: nicotine reduces heart rate but increases blood pressure as a response to stress What are successful ways for smokers to increase their chances of quitting. Changing attitudes toward smoking. Nicotine replacement therapy. Therapeutic approach to the problem. Social support and stress management. Interventions with adolescents. Relapse prevention. Review the main reason why Chris Hemsworth is using breathing and engaging in tasks that produce stress. SOME EXTRA REVIEW: 1. Which of the following is NOT one of the four preventable factors of nearly half the deaths in the US? A) Smoking B) Obesity C) Binge Eating D) Drug Abuse 2. Which is a risk factor for atherosclerosis? A) High HDL (high density lipoprotein) B) Low HDL (high density lipoprotein) C) Sleeping D) Exercise 3. Which system is responsible for the fight or flight response? A) Somatic System B) Endocrine System C) Parasympathetic System D) Sympathetic System  4. Which of the following statements is true about chronic illnesses? A) The are rapidly developing diseases B) They are diseases in which social factors are implicated as causes C) They rarely affect relationships with a partner D) They are curable Passive smoking or secondhand smoke is a documented health risk. True or False Sleep Cycles Stage 1: - slightest and earlier stages of sleep, marked by theta waves Stage 2: - Breathing and heart rates even out - Body temperature drops - sleep spindles and K-Complex Waves Stage 3 & 4: - Deep Sleep Marked by theta waves REM: Rapid Eye Movement - Restores energy Strengthens the immune system - Prompts the body to release growth hormones Which stage of sleep is defined by drop in body temperature, sleep spindles, and K-Complex Waves? A) Stage 1 B) Stage 2 C) Stage 3 D) REM 5. Which is of the following is a long-term effect of abstaining from smoking? A) Reduced energy levels B) Increased muscle mass and stamina C) Reduced self-esteem D) Increased sense of mastery 6. Binge eating is usually triggered by: A) Negative emotions produced by stressful experiences B) Excessive exercise C) Hunger splurges in anorexic individuals D) Collagen that is produced in the cells of the stomach  7. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a scientific tool that permits glimpses into A) The brain B) The endocrine system C) The circulatory system D) DNA molecules 8. Acute disorders are: A) Short-term illnesses that are usually amenable to cure B) Typically co-managed by the patient and the practitioner C) The major causes of death and illness in the US D) Slowly developing diseases with which people live for many years 9. Which part of the brain is responsible for voluntary muscle movement & maintenance of balance and equilibrium? A) Medulla B) Pons C) Cerebellum D) Midbrain Describe the biopsychosocial and biomedical models. Explain the advantages of the biopsychosocial model over the biomedical model. The biomedical model is based on bodily processes such as biochemical balances or neurophysiological abnormalities. This model emphasizes illness over health rather than focusing on behaviors that promote health. The biopsychosocial model is based on biological, psychological, and social factors that are all important determinants of health and illness. The advantage of the biopsychosocial model is that it emphasizes both health and illness and promotes overall well-being. 10. _ refers to study of frequency, distribution and causes of infectious and non-infectious diseasese in a population. A) Etiology B) Epidemiology C) Oncology D) Pathology 11. Which of the following is the primary concern for health psychologists? A) Development of superior-quality medication B) Access to follow-up care after a medical procedure C) Rate of mortality in a given population D) Health-related quality of life  Exam 2 Study Guide Chapter 6 Define what is stress. Negative emotional experience is accompanied by predictable biochemical, physiological, cognitive, and behavioral changes o What is a stressor Events that cause stress. Compare primary and secondary appraisal and their roles in the experience of stress. Primary appraisal: - Understanding what an event is and what it will mean. - Events are appraised for their harm, threat, or challenge. Secondary appraisal: - Assessing whether personal resources are sufficient to meet the demands of the environment Describe Selye’s general adaptation syndrome. a theory that describes the body's physiological response to prolonged stress continuous exposure to stress factor leads to exhaustion, which may have fatal consequences Describe the tend-and-befriend theory. o Provide examples a social response to stress that involves caring for others and seeking support from a social network In addition to fight or flight, people and animals respond to stress with: - Social affiliation. - Nurturant behavior toward offspring. - Oxytocin is released during stressful events. - Acts as an impetus for affiliation.  Describe how stress contributes to illness. When chronic stress goes unreleased, it suppresses the body's immune system and ultimately manifests as illness Describe the physiological response to stress, including allostatic load. Direct physiological effects. Elevated lipids. Elevated blood pressure. Decreased immunity. Increased hormonal activity. Psychosocial resources. Threatened social support. Reduced optimism. Threats to self-esteem. Lower sense of mastery. Health care. Decreased adherence to treatment. Delay in seeking care. Obscured symptom profile. Decreased likelihood of seeking care. Hypothalamic-Pituitary- Adrenocortical (HPA) Axis The hypothalamus releases corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH). Stimulates secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH stimulates the release of glucocorticoids, such as cortisol. Repeated activation of the HPA axis can compromise its functioning. o Define allostatic load. The physiological consequences of chronic stress on the body, including the wear and tear on organs and tissues, and changes in metabolism Explain the impact of the anticipation of stress and the aftereffects of stress. After-effects of stress: Persist long after the stressful event is no longer present - Shortened attention span.  - Poor performance on intellectual tasks. - Ongoing psychological distress. - Physiological arousal. - Suppressed immune function is an effect of long-term stress Define daily hassles and chronic strain and explain their relationship to physical and psychological health. Daily hassles: Minor stressful events that lead to: - Psychological distress. - Adverse physiological changes. - Physical symptoms. - Use of health care services. Chronic strain: This develops when a stressful event becomes a permanent or chronic part of the environment. - Adapting to stress depends on: - Type of stressor. - The subjective experience of stress. - Indicator of stress. Describe the long-term effects of early stressful life experiences. Suppression of immune function. Increased blood pressure and heart rate. Psychiatric disorders. Development of atherosclerosis Problems with verbal functioning, memory, and concentration. Storage of fat in central visceral areas. Affects immune functioning and sleep. Describe the sources of chronic stress and their impact on health. poverty, a dysfunctional marriage or family, or a deeply dissatisfying job Explain role ambiguity and role conflict. Give examples of the two! Role Ambiguity: where someone is unclear about their responsibilities, expectations Role Conflict: when someone faces contradictory demands or expectations from different roles they hold Explain how lack of control over one’s work life is a major stressor. low decision-making influence over how work gets done) in combination with high work demands can significantly increase workers' risks of developing chronic diseases like diabetes and of death from cardiovascular causes Chapter 7 Define stress moderators. Modify how stress is experienced and the effects it has Describe how stress may exert a direct effect on illness, interact with preexisting vulnerabilities, and adversely affect health habits. Define the coping process. Coping refers to conscious or unconscious strategies used to reduce and manage unpleasant emotions Define negative affectivity and explain its relationship to stress and illness. Marked by anxiety, depression, and hostility. Related to: Poor health. All-cause mortality. Higher levels of stress indicators. Associated with poor health habits. People do not respond well to treatments. Can create an illusion of poor health. Define optimism and explain its relationship to stress and illness. Promotes active and approach-oriented coping efforts and healthy behaviors Describe the relationship of psychological control to stress and illness. The belief that one can exert control over stressful events Describe the relationship of other personality variables (e.g., self-esteem and conscientiousness) to stress and illness. higher levels of conscientiousness are associated with lower levels of stress and illness, people high in conscientiousness tend to have better coping mechanisms Define avoidance and confrontive coping styles and explain their relationship to stress and illness. Avoidance: refers to a strategy where individuals try to reduce stress by actively avoiding or distancing themselves from a stressful situation confrontive coping involves directly confronting a stressor with assertive actions aimed at changing the situation Describe the role of external resources in coping and their relationship to stress and Illness. People with greater resources typically cope better with stressful events because time money, friends, and other resources provide more ways of dealing with stressful events. Define social support. Compare the different forms of social support. Direct effects hypothesis: Social support is generally beneficial during nonstressful as well as stressful times. Buffering hypothesis: Physical and mental health benefits of social support are chiefly evident during periods of high stress. Social support is effective when the person from whom one is seeking support is perceived to be responsive to one’s needs Social support has positive effects on the cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune systems Explain the biopsychosocial pathways by which social support influences health and Illness. - Social support has positive effects on the cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune systems. - Lowers physiological and neuroendocrine responses to stress. - Decreases cortisol responses to stress. - Better immune functioning. - Modifies the brain’s responses to stress Chapter 8 Describe the social and psychological factors that influence the recognition and interpretation of symptoms. cultural beliefs about illness, prior experiences with illness, social support networks, stress levels, personal health beliefs, the meaning attributed to symptoms, family dynamics, socioeconomic status Differentiate between an acute, chronic, and cyclic illness. Acute illness: Believed to be caused by viral or bacterial agents. Short in duration, with no long-term consequences. Chronic illness: Believed to be caused by multiple factors. Long in duration, with severe consequences. Cyclic illness: Alternating periods of either no symptoms or many symptoms. Explain how the use of health services is spread across different populations. leading to disparities where certain groups consistently utilize healthcare services less than others, often resulting in poorer health outcomes Describe the nature and function of the lay referral network. the informal network of friends, family, and close acquaintances that individuals consult when experiencing health concerns, influencing their interpretation of symptoms Describe the sociocultural factors that predict the use of health services. Social class and culture: Lower social classes use it less than affluent social classes. Social psychological factors. Individual attitudes and beliefs toward health services and symptoms. Children learn how to use health services from their parents. Explain the nature and consequences of delayed behavior. Common among people: With no regular contact with a physician. Who are phobic about medical services. Symptoms that delay seeking treatment. Those are similar to a previous one that turned out to be minor. Those that do not hurt or change quickly. Those that can be easily accommodated. Symptoms that are typical of a disorder are more likely to be treated. Delay in taking recommended treatments. Patients no longer feel any urgency about their condition. Patients become alarmed by the symptoms and avoid thinking about them altogether. Delay on the part of the health care practitioner. Medical delay is likely when a patient deviates from the profile of the average person with a given disease. Chapter 9 Describe providers’ behaviors that contribute to faulty patient-provider communication. Inattentiveness. Use of jargon Baby talk. Nonperson treatment. Stereotypes of patients. Describe patient factors that contribute to faulty patient-provider communication. multiple comorbidities, language barriers, and health literacy Poor education and understanding. Patients' inability to present their complaints effectively. Neurotic patients may exaggerate symptoms. Anxious patients may find it difficult to focus attention and process and retain information Describe qualities of the provider-patient interaction that contribute to faulty Communication. Lack of opportunity for feedback to the provider. Difficulty in knowing if and when a relationship has been established with a patient. Learning is fostered more by positive than by negative feedback. Describe the causes of nonadherence to treatment regimens. When patients do not adopt the behaviors and treatments their providers recommend. Adherence rates vary depending on the treatment recommendations. Overall, about 85% of patients fail to adhere completely to prescribed medications. Describe the nature and effectiveness of strategies for improving patient adherence to treatment regimens. A clear, jargon-free explanation is received. Instructions are asked to be repeated. Instructions are written down. Unclear recommendations are singled out and clarified. Instructions are repeated more than once  Describe the impact of hospitalization on patients. emotional reactions and adversely impacts their psychological well-being Describe the various factors to consider when designing an intervention to increase information in the hospital setting. identifying the target audience, understanding information needs, choosing appropriate delivery methods, addressing potential barriers Describe the factors that affect the hospitalized child and describe how to prepare children for medical interventions. Children equally benefit from preparation as adults. Results in fewer problem behaviors after hospitalization. Parents can undertake preparation. The presence of parents during stressful medical procedures can be helpful. Describe the various kinds of CAM therapies available. - Acupuncture - Yoga - Hypnosis - Meditation - Guided Imagery Describe the placebo effect. Placebo: Medical procedure that produces an effect in a patient because of its therapeutic intent. Chapter 10 Explain the medical and psychological significance of pain. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RWMKucuejIs&t=1s Provides low-level feedback about the functioning of our bodily systems. Symptoms can lead a person to seek treatment. Inadequate relief from pain is the most common reason for requests for euthanasia or assisted suicide. Pain has social causes and consequences.  Describe the psychological and social consequences of chronic pain. - Cognitive impairment - Mental health issues - Memory decline - Social isolation Explain the physiological aspects of pain. (1) activity in sympathetic nerves, (2) peripheral branching of primary afferent nociceptors, (3) convergence projection, (4) convergence facilitation Describe the neurochemical bases of pain and its inhibition. o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zR-1M95Kthw The brain controls the amount of pain an individual experiences by transmitting messages to block the transmission of pain signals. Endogenous opioid peptides: Natural pain suppression system of the body. Stress-induced analgesia (S I A): Phenomenon where acute stress reduces sensitivity to pain. Compare acute and chronic pain. Define the different kinds of chronic pain (i.e., chronic benign pain, recurrent acute pain, and chronic progressive pain). Acute pain: Results from a specific injury that produces tissue damage. Chronic pain: Begins with an acute episode but does not decrease with treatment and the passage of time Chronic benign pain. - Persists for six months or longer. - Relatively unresponsive to treatment. - The severity of pain varies. Recurrent acute pain. - Intermittent episodes of pain that are acute in character but chronic in condition. - Recurs for more than six months Chronic progressive pain. - Persists longer than six months and increases in severity over time. - Associated with malignancies or degenerative disorders. Neurogenic pain - Pain resulting from damage to peripheral nerves or the central nervous system. - Psychogenic pain: Pain not due to an identifiable physical cause. Describe pharmacological techniques to control pain and their effectiveness. Administration of drugs. - The most common method of controlling pain. Types of drugs. - Local anesthetics: Affect the transmission of pain impulses from peripheral receptors to the spinal cord. - Spinal blocking agents. - Antidepressants: Affect the downward pathways from the brain that modulate pain. Drawbacks: - Undesirable side effects. - Addiction. Describe the use and effectiveness of biofeedback to control pain. A method of achieving control over a bodily process. Involves providing biophysiological feedback to a patient about some bodily process of which the patient is unaware. The target function to be controlled is identified and tracked by a machine. The patient attempts to change the bodily process with the help of continuous feedback. Describe the use and effectiveness of relaxation techniques to control pain. Shifting the body into a state of low arousal by progressively relaxing different parts of the body using controlled breathing. Beneficial physiological effects are due to the release of Opioids. Describe the use and effectiveness of coping techniques to control pain. relaxation techniques, physical therapies, cognitive strategies, and social support Describe the outcomes of evaluating pain management programs. Interdisciplinary efforts bring together neurological, cognitive, behavioral, and psychological expertise concerning pain. - Steps. - Initial evaluation. - Individualized treatment.  - Components. - Patient education. - Involvement of family. - Relapse prevention Limitless – Second Episode of Blue Zone (understand the general reasons why people in Sardinia Italy are living longer! The whole village is built on a hill, they exercise often without even knowing it Exam 3 Study Guide Chapter 11 Describe the prevalence and severity of chronic illness in the United States. An estimated 129 million people in the US have at least 1 major chronic disease Describe the emotional responses to chronic health disorders. Denial Anxiety Depression Explain the role of denial, anxiety, and depression in coping with chronic health disorders, and explain whether these emotional reactions occur in stages. Denial- a defense mechanism in which people avoid the implications of a disorder Anxiety- patients become overwhelmed by the changes in their lives and the prospect of death Depression- complicates treatment adherence and medical decision-making Explain the various personal issues affecting different aspects of the self (the physical, the achieving, the social, and the private self) associated with chronic health disorders. Achievement: an important source of self-esteem and self-concept Social resources: provide information, help, and emotional support Private self: Patient identity can be affected by chronic health disorders  Explain the relationship of coping strategies to chronic health disorders. Social support/ direct problem-solving Distancing Positive focus Cognitive escape or avoidance Behavioral escape or avoidance Describe the positive changes in response to chronic health disorders. Increased self-awareness Deeper relationship with loved ones Stronger sense of personal reliance Describe the unique issues faced by children coping with chronic health disorders. Children may not fully understand their diagnoses or treatment and may experience confusion Children cannot follow their own treatment regime and need support from their family May experience isolation and terrifying procedure Could experience behavioral problems and develop maladaptive coping Describe the use and effectiveness of individual therapy in helping patients cope with chronic health disorders. Can be episodic Collaboration is critical Requires respect for a patient's disease Comprehensive understanding of health disorders and their mood of treatment Describe the use and effectiveness of social support, family support, and support groups in helping patients cope with their chronic health disorders. Enhances patient physical and emotional functioning Promotes adherence to treatment Improves course of health disorders Support groups: discuss issues of mutual concern that arise as a consequence of health disorders. Chapter 12 Summarize the trends in infant mortality in the United States and describe the main causes of death in infancy and early childhood. Main causes of death during the 1st year of life: Congenital abnormalities  Sudden infant death syndrome (S I D S): Condition where an infant stops breathing. More likely to occur in lower class urban environment. If the mother smoked during pregnancy. If baby is put to sleep on its stomach or side. Main causes of death in children under age 15: Accidents. Congenital problems. Cancer. Describe the main causes of death in adolescence and adulthood and the disadvantages associated with premature death in adulthood. Unintentional injury. Suicide. Homicide. Heart disease. Cancer. Premature death: death that occurs before the average age for the population—increases during middle age Describe the nature of gender differences in mortality. Women live longer than men. Women seem to be biologically more fit. Men engage in more risky behaviors. Men engage in less preventive health care and may have less social support. Describe the psychological issues associated with continued treatment and advancing illness. Social withdrawal Spiritual concerns Uncertainty Describe the Patient Self-Determination Act, and define living will and explain the issues associated with euthanasia and assisted suicide. The Patient Self-Determination Act (1990). Requires health facilities to have policies concerning patients’ wishes for life-prolonging Therapy.  Right-to-die movement. Maintains that dying is more a matter of personal choice and personal control. There are ethical concerns about the right to die, potential for abuse, the slippery slope argument Describe the changes in patient’s self-concept that are associated with advancing illness. Changes in physical, spiritual, emotional, sexual, familial, and sociocultural health can affect self-concept Explain the issues of social interaction, communication, and nontraditional treatment associated with advancing illness. Advance care planning discussions ensure patients' values and goals of care, including the freedom to choose their place of death, are respected. Explain Kübler-Ross’s Five-Stage theory and evaluate its value as a model of death and Dying. Denial: Patient’s initial reaction on learning of a diagnosis Anger: Hard response for family and friends to deal with Bargaining: Trading good behavior for good health Depression: Time for anticipatory grief. Acceptance: A tired, peaceful calm descends Theory does not hold space for anxiety Describe the significance of the medical staff to the terminally ill patient. Euthanasia: Ending the life of a person who is suffering from a painful terminal illness. Physician-assisted death: Involves a person voluntarily ending his or her life with a lethal dose prescribed by a physician. Living will: Provide instructions and legal protection for the physician. - Ensure that life-prolonging interventions will not be indefinitely undertaken. Describe the physician’s role and the role of other medical staff in terminal care. Physicians spend less time with terminally ill patients to dedicate their time for patients who can most profit from it.  Describe the nature of hospice care and home and evaluate the effectiveness of each. Hospice: Place that provided care and comfort for travelers in medieval Europe. Painful or invasive therapies are discontinued. The patient’s psychological comfort is stressed. Oriented toward managing pain and symptoms and improving social support system. Home Care Taking care of the patient at home. Very popular and economically feasible. Provides psychological advantages for the patient. Can be stressful for the family. Describe the problems faced by the adult and child survivors. The death of a sibling raises complications for child survivors For women: Financial strain. For men: Strains of managing a household Chapter 13 Describe the prevalence of coronary heart disease (CHD) in the United States. Chronic illnesses are caused by atherosclerosis or narrowing of coronary arteries. Temporary shortages of oxygen and nutrients cause pain, called angina pectoris, that radiates across the chest and arm. Severe shortages can result in heart attack (myocardial infarction). What makes you at risk? High cholesterol. High blood pressure. Elevated levels of inflammation. Diabetes. Cigarette smoking. Obesity. Lack of exercise Describe the nature of CHD and outline the risk factors that are implicated in its Development. Diagnosed when a person has three or more of the following problems: Obesity centered around the waist.  High blood pressure. Low levels of HDL. Difficulty metabolizing blood sugar. High levels of triglycerides CHD may cause heart failure, where the heart does not pump blood as it should. Cumulative effects lead to damage to the endothelial cells which enables lipids to deposit plaques Not only initial responses to stress but also reflected in a prolonged recovery period Discuss the role of stress and depression in CHD and treatment options to reduce stress Stress. Interacts with genetic factors to increase the likelihood of CHD. Associated with increased inflammatory activity Depression affects the development, progression, and mortality from CHD Chapter 14 Describe the nature and function of the immune system. Functions. Distinguishes between what is self and what is foreign. Attacks and rids the body of foreign invaders Natural immunity: Generalized defense against pathogens. Specific immunity: Response to a specific invader. Describe four approaches to assessing immune functioning. - ASSESS THE FUNCTIONING OF IMMUNE CELLS. - ASSESS THE PRODUCTION OF ANTIBODIES TO LATENT VIRUSES. - ASSESS LEVELS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM PRODUCTS. - USE INDIRECT MEASURES, LIKE HOW QUICKLY WOUNDS HEAL. Summarize the results of studies relating stress to immune functioning. Stress can compromise immune functioning, in part, because it increases negative emotions. Depression is associated with:  Decrease in cellular immunity. Prolonged inflammatory responses. Delayed wound healing. Sleep disturbance. Describe two basic principles that are important to understand the relation of stress and Immunity. Basic principles for understanding this relationship: Different kinds of stressors require different kinds of defenses. Maximally efficient immune response to any situation entails costs. Can be studied. Naturalistically or in the laboratory. Describe how stress and the HPA axis influence immune functioning. Summarize the results of studies relating psychological stressors to health. Response to immediate short-term stressors: Produce changes in the immune system that enable wound repair and infection prevention. Up-regulation of natural immunity and down-regulation of specific immunity. Summarize the results of studies relating negative effect to immune functioning. experiencing negative emotions, like sadness, anger, and stress, can significantly impair immune function by triggering the release of stress hormones like cortisol, Summarize the results of studies relating interpersonal relationships, stress, and immune functioning. positive social connections generally associated with a stronger immune system, while stress from negative relationships can suppress immune responses Explain how coping and coping resources moderate the relation between stress and immune functioning. how effectively someone copes with stress can significantly influence the impact of that stress on their immune system Describe stress management interventions designed to enhance immune functioning mindfulness meditation, deep breathing exercises, progressive muscle relaxation, and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)  Describe the nature of interventions designed to reduce the spread of HIV infection and evaluate their effectiveness. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). A retrovirus that attacks helper T cells and macrophages of the immune system. Transmitted through the exchange of bodily fluids, especially semen, and blood. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). The period between contracting HIV and developing symptoms of AIDS is variable. Describe the factors that promote long-term survival among people who are HIV-Positive. maintaining a healthy lifestyle with good nutrition and exercise, managing co-occurring health conditions, avoiding risky behaviors like smoking Summarize the results of studies of psychological adjustment and coping with HIV infection and AIDS. effective coping mechanisms like social support, cognitive behavioral therapy, and stress management techniques can improve psychological adjustment and quality of life for individuals with HIV/AIDS Explain how psychosocial factors may affect the course of AIDS. influencing treatment adherence, immune function, and overall quality of life Describe the demographic risk groups for cancer. Age and race ages 25-60 white people have the highest rate of new cancer cases, followed by Black people. Hispanic, Asian, Pacific Islander Describe the psychosocial factors that affect the initiation and course of cancer. chronic stress, depression, anxiety, low social support, lack of perceived control, hostility, and traumatic life events Summarize the results of studies of the relationship between stress and cancer. stress doesn't directly cause cancer, it can make it harder to maintain healthy habits that can increase the risk of cancer Describe the physical and psychological problems associated with cancer and the role of coping strategies in dealing with these problems. pain, fatigue, nausea, hair loss, changes in appetite, and physical limitations depending on the type and stage of the disease Describe the nature of arthritis. a chronic condition that causes inflammation in the joints, which are the places where two bones meet Discuss Type 1 Diabetes and its causes. Genetics: Some people have genes that increase their risk of developing type 1 diabetes, but many people with those genes won't develop the disease. Environmental factors: Exposure to certain viruses, especially in infancy, may play a role Extreme thirst Increased hunger Dry mouth Upset stomach and vomiting Frequent peeing Unexplained weight loss Feeling tired or weak Vision changes Heavy, labored breathing Repeated infections People with type 1 diabetes must regularly check their blood sugar levels and take insulin shots or wear an insulin pump. Long-term complications of type 1 diabetes include: Heart disease, Stroke, Peripheral nerve damage, Retinal damage, and Kidney damage. Explain the special problems of adolescent diabetics. inconsistent blood sugar control, potential for eating disorders, and difficulties adhering to their treatment plan, including insulin injections and dietary restrictions Chapter 15 Describe current trends in the health habits of Americans that inform health promotion Efforts. the science and art of helping people change their lifestyle to move toward a state of optimal health Describe trends in U.S. healthcare spending. reaching 19.7% of GDP by 2032.  Describe trends in life expectancy in the U.S. according to different groups. Asian: 83.5 years Hispanic: 77.7 years White: 76.4 years Black: 70.8 years AIAN: 65.2 years Describe the goals of health psychology research in health promotion, including the shift of focus from mortality to morbidity, the role of environmental hazards that may pose health risks, and changes in medical practice and research. aims to understand and influence psychological and behavioral factors that contribute to maintaining health, preventing disease, and improving quality of life by focusing on reducing morbidity (illness burden) rather than just mortality (death rate), while also considering the impact of environmental hazards and advocating for changes in medical practice and research to better integrate behavioral interventions. Describe the goals of health psychology research in chronic illness. to understand how psychological factors influence the experience of living with a chronic disease, identify mechanisms that contribute to quality of life, develop effective interventions to manage symptoms, promote healthy behaviors, and ultimately improve the overall well-being of individuals with chronic conditions by addressing the psychological aspects of their illness Summarize the changing nature of medical practice and technology. Describe the comprehensive intervention models holistic approaches that address multiple aspects of a patient's health, including social determinants, by combining various treatment modalities and coordinating care across different healthcare providers to achieve optimal outcomes