RBD Glossary Sheet PDF

absolute dating The determination of age with reference to a specific timescale, such as a fixed calendrical system; also referred to as chronometric dating. accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) A refinement of radiocarbon dating that.can be used on very small samples. aerial reconnaissance/survey...

absolute dating The determination of age with reference to a specific timescale, such as a fixed calendrical system; also referred to as chronometric dating. accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) A refinement of radiocarbon dating that.can be used on very small samples. aerial reconnaissance/survey An important survey technique in the discovery and recording of archaeological sites, agency Involves the investigation of the diversity of human intentions, competencies, and actions in the past. The archaeological study of agency recognizes that, within a society, individuals often have different interests and motivations, shaped by their social positions or roles. alloying A technique involving the mixing of two or more metals to create a new material, e.g. the fusion of copper and tin lo make bronze. ALS (airborne laser scanning) annealing Tn copper and bronze metallurgy, this refers to the repeated process of heating and hammering the material to produce the desired shape. anthropology The study of humanity—oit physical characteristics as animals, and the unique nonbiological characteristics we call culture. The subject is generally broken down into four subdisciplines: biological (physical) anthropology, cultural (social) anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and archaeology. archaeological culture A recurring assemblage assumed to be representative of a particular set of behavioral activities carried out al a particular time and place. archaeology A subdiscipline of anthropology involving the study of the human past through its material remains. archaeozoology (or zovarchaeology) This involves the identification andanalysis of faunal species from archaeological sites, as an aid to the reconstruction of human diets and to an understanding of the contemporary environment at the time of deposition, artifact Any portable object modified or made by humans, e.g, stone tools, pottery, and metal weapons. assemblage A group of artifacts recurring together at a particular time and place, and representing the sum of human activities. association The occurrence of an artifact with other archaeological remains,usually in the same matrix. atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) A method of analyzing artifact composition that is similar to optical emission spectrometry (OES) in that it measures energy in the form of visible light waves. It is capable of me to forty different elements with an accuracy of about 1 percent. attribute A minimal characteristic of an artifact such that it cannot be furth subdivided. Commonly studied attributes include aspects of form, ag decoration, color, and raw material. = style) Critical Theory A theoretical approach developed by the Franklurt School of twentieth-century German social thinkers to examine the assumptions on which any society is built. Critical theorists argue that knowledge always exists within a social and historical context and that all aims to objective knowledge are therefore illusory. cultural anthropology A subdiscipline of anthropology concerned with the nonhiological, behavioral aspects of society; ie. the social, linguistic, and technological components underlying buman behavior. Two important branches of cultural anthropology are ethnography and ethnology. In Europe. itis referred to as social anthropology. culture-historical approach An approach to archacological interpretation which uses the procedure of the traditional historian (including emphasis on specific circumstances elaborated with rich delail, and processes of inductive reasoning). deduction A process of reasoning by which more specific consequences are inferred by rigorous argument from more general propositions. deep-sea cores Cores drilled from the seabed that provide the most coherent record of climate changes on a worldwide scale. The cores contain shells of microscopic marine organisms (foraminifera) laid down on the occan floor through the continuous process of sedimentation. Variations in the ratio of two oxygen isotopes (see isotopic analysis) in the calcium carbonate of these shells are a sensitive indicator of sea temperature at the time the organisms were alive. demography ‘Iie study of the processes that contribute to population structure and their temporal and spatial dynamics. dendrochronology The study of tree-ring patterns: annual variations in climatic conditions produce differential growth, which can be used both as a measure of environmental change and as the basis for a chronology. diagnostic An artifact or some other aspect of a site known to be associated with a particular time period and/or cultural group. Diagnostics allow archacologists to identify relatively specific time periods during which the artifact or aspect was created, diffusionist approach The theory popularized by Gordon Childe (1892~1957) lal all the attributes of cultural development, from architecture to metalworking, had diffused from West Asia to Europe. earthresistance survey A method of subsurface detection that measures changes in conductivity by passing an electrical current through ground soils, ‘This is generally a consequence of moisture content. In this way, buried features can be detected by differential retention of groundwater. echo-sounding An acoustic underwater survey technique used to trace the topography of submerged coastal plains and other buried land surfaces. See also seismic reflection profiling. ecofacts Nonartifactual organic and environmental remains that have cultural relevance. e.g. faunal and floral material, as well as soils and sediments electrolysis A standard cleaning process in archaeological conservation. An artifact is placed in a chemical solution, and a weak current is passed between it and a surrounding metal grill, which causes the corrosive salts to move from the cathode (object} to the anade (grill), removing any accumulated deposit and leaving the artifact clean. empire A territorially expansive state. ethnicity The existence of ethnic groups, including segmentary societies. Though they arc difficult to recognize from the archaeological record, the study of language and linguistic boundaries shows that ethnic groups are often correlated with language areas (see ethnos). ethnoarchaeology The study of contemporary cultures with a view to understanding the behavioral relationships that underlie the production of material culture. excavation The principal method of data acquisition in archaeology, involving the systematic uncovering of archaeological remains through the removal of the deposits of sail and the other material covering them and accompanying them. experimental archaeology ‘The study of past behavioral processes through experimental reconstruction under carefully controlled scientific conditions, faience A glass-like material first made in Predynastic Egypt. It involves coating a fission-track dating A dating method used on materials that have been heated in the past, and based on the constant rate of fission of uranium 238. Each moment of fission creates an atomic track in the material, which can be counted lo calculate the time at which the material was heated. flotation A method of screening (sieving) excavated matrix in water so as to separate and recover small ecofacts and artifacts, fluxgate gradiometer An instrument used for measuring minute variations in the magnetic field that are caused by hidden anomalies in the ground, producing a continuous reading on a meter. It is a type of magnetometer. formation processes Those processes affecting the way in which archaeological materials came to be buried, and their subsequent history. Cullural formation processes include the deliberate or accidental activities of humans; natural formation processes refer to natural or environmental cvents that govern the burial and survival of the archaeological record. frequency seriation A relative dating method that relies principally on measuring changes in the proportional abundance, or frequency, observed among finds (e.g. counts of tool types, or of ceramic fabrics or styles). gender archaeology Approaches that are central to archaeological research on a range of topics, from identity and personhood in the past to crafling and the division of household labor. gene The basic unit of inheritance, gaverned by the specific sequence of the genetic markers within the DNA of the individual concerned, geochemical analysis An investigatory technique that invalves taking soil samples at regular intervals from the surface of a site and measuring their phosphate content and other chemical properties. Geographic Information System (GIS) GIS are software-based systems designed for the collection, organizing, storage, retrieval, analysis, and display of spatial/ digital geographical data held in different layers. Other digital data can be added into the GIS, such as types and features of artifacts in addition to their position in space. geomagnetic reversal An aspect of archaeomagnetism that is relevant to the dating of the Lower Palealithic, involving a complete reversal in the Earths magnetic field. See also archaeomagnetic dating, geomorphology A subdiscipline of geography concerned with studying the form and development of the landscape. It includes such specializations as sedimentology. geophysical A collection of ground-based physical sensing techniques the measuring of magnetic fields and levels of soil resistivity, and the % beneath the surface. glottochronology A controversial method of assessing the divergence over time of two languages based on changes of vocabulary (see also lexicostatistics) expressed as an arithmetical formula. p granulation The soldering of grains of metal to a background, usually of the samy metal. This technique was much used by the Etruscans. ground-penetrating radar (GPR) A method of subsurface detection in which short radio pulses are sent through the soil, such that the echoes reflect back significant changes in soil conditions. ground reconnaissance A collective name for a wide variety of methods for identifying individual archacological sites, including consultalion af. documenta sources, place-name evidence, local folklore, and legend, but primarily Toa fieldwork. hand ax A Paleolithic stone tool usually made by modifying (chipping or flaking) anatural pebble, hierarchy A society in which members are ranked according to relative status, hieroglyphics A written language involving stylized pictures and characters (hieroglyphs) that may represent words or sounds, historical archaeology The archaeological study of historically documented cultures, In North America, research is directed at colonial and pastcolonial settlement, analogous to the study of medieval and postmedieval archaeology in Europe. historical particularism 4 detailed descriptive approach to anthropology associated with Franz Boas (1858-1942) and his students, and designed as an alternative to the broad generalizing approach favored by anthropologists such as Lewis Henry Morgan and Edward Tylor. hoard An assemblage of valuables or prized possessions that has been deliberately. buried (often in a time of conflict or war) and that, for one reason or another, has not been reclaimed. Hoards of metal are a primary source of evidence for the Furopean Bronze Age. hominin In human evolution, describes species thal are more closely related to humans than chimpanzees. ice core A core drilled from the Arctic and Antarctic polar ice caps, containing layers of compacted ice that are useful for reconstructing palesenvironments and (collectively) as a method of absolute dating. identity A complex phenomenon that involves both self-perception (how individuals sec themselves) and social perceptions (collective identities) shared by members of agroup. Identity may emphasize gender, age, occupation, social status, ethnicity, or nationality in the modern world. isotopes Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but with a different number of neutrons (i.e. a greater or lesser atomic mass) than the standard for the element. laser-fusion argon-argon dating A radioisotopic method that uses lasers to release and then measure argon in a controlled setting, allowing greater precision. The stable isotope *K (potassium) is converted to “Ar (argon) by neutron bombardment. The argon isotopes can then be measured and compared. Since the “K:®K ratio is constant, the #Ar??Ar ratio indicates the age of the volcanic rock being dated. LIDAR (light detection and ranging) A remote sensing technique, also known as airborne laser scanning (ATS), that uses the same principle as radar. The instrument transmits light to a target, some of which is rettected back to the instrument. The time for the light to travel out to the target and back is used to determine distance. lineage A group claiming descent from a common ancestor.loess sediments Deposits formed of a yellowish dust of silt-sized particles blown by the wind and redeposited on land newly deglaciated, or on sheltered areas. Loess provides information about the climatic conditions that existed (hroughout an area's history and is also an indicator of the first agricultural settlements. machine learning A type of artificial intelligence (AI) that allows classification tasks to become mare accurate at predicting outcomes without being explicitly programmed to do so. Machine-learning algorithms use historical data as input to predict new output values. Marxist archaeology Based principally on the writings of Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), this posits a malerialist model of societal mass spectrometry A form of analysis that identifies chemical clemcnts by measuring their weight. matrix The physical material within which artifacts are embedded or supported, Maya calendar A method, employed by the Maya, for measuring the passage of time, comprising two separate calendar systems: (1) the Calendar Round, used for everyday purposes; and (2) the Long Count, used for the reckoning of historical dates. Mesolithic (Middle Slone Age) [n Asia and Eurasia, an chronological period beginning around 10,000 years ago, between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic, and associated with the rise to dominance of microliths over other tools in the archaeological record. metallographic examination A technique used in the study of early metallargy involving the microscopic examination of a polished section cut from an artifact that has been etched to reveal the metal structure. microlith A tiny stone tool, characteristic of the Mesolithic period, many of which were probably used as barbs. Midwestern Taxonomic System A framework devised by W. C. McKern (1892- 1988) in 1939 to systematize sequences in the Great Plains area of the United Statcs,using the general principle of similarities between assemblages of artifacts, morphology The physical structure or form of an object. Neolithic (New Stone Age) In Eurasia and parts of Africa, the chronological period following the Mesolithic, characlerized by the development of agriculture (see Neolithic Revolution) and, hence, an increasing emphasis on scttled village lifc. Neolithic Revolution A term coined by Gordon Childe (1892-1957) in the mid-1930s to describe the origin and consequences of farming (i.¢. the development of stock raising and agriculture) in the Neolithic period, which allowed the widespread development of settled village life. neutron activation analysis (NAA) A method used in the analysis of artifact composition that depends on the excitation of the nuclei of the atoms ofa sample's various elements, when these are bombarded with slow neutrons (neutrons slowed down after a set of collisions on atomic nuclei). ‘Lhe method is accurale to about +5 percent. New Archaeology A new approach advocated in the 1960s that argued for an explicitly scientific framework of archaeological method and theory, with hypotheses rigorously tested, as the proper basis for explanation rather than simply description. ‘Ibis is now known as processual archaeology. nonprobabilistic sampling A nonstatistical sampling strategy (in contrast to probabilistic sampling, which uses probability theory) that concentrates on sampling areas on the basis of intuition, historical documentation, or long field experience in the area. off-site evidence Data from a range of information, including scatters of such artifacts and features as plowmarks and field boundaries, which provide important evidence about human exploitation of the environment, Also known as non-site evidence. open-area excavation The opening up of large horizontal areas for excavation, used especially where single-period deposits lie close to the surface as, for example, with the remains of Native American or European Neolithic longhouses. optical emission spectrometry (OES) A technique used in the analysis of artifact campositian, based on the principle that electrons, when excited (ic. heated to a high temperature), release light of a particular wavelength (see also. atomic absorption spectrometry). The presence or absence of various elements is established by examining the appropriate spectral line of their characteristic wavelengths. Generally, this method gives an accuracy of only 25 percent and has been superseded by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry. Paleolithic (Old Stone Agc) The archacological period before c. 10,000 BCE, characterized by the earliest known stone-tool manufacture. ranked society A socicty in which there is a hierarchy based on unequal access to prestige and status, e.g. chiefdoms and states. refitting Sometimes referred to as “conjoining,”’ this entails atlermpling to recombine stone tools and flakes. It provides important information on the physical and cognitive processes involved in the creation of such tools. relative dating The determination of chronological sequence withoul recourse toa fixed Limescale, e.g. the arrangement of artifacts into typologies, or seriation. Sce also absolute dating. remote sensing ‘The imaging of phenomena from a distance, primarily Uurough airborne and satellite imaging, Ground-based remote sensing links geophysical methods, such as radar, with remote sensing methods applied at ground level, such as ground-penetrating radar. See also LIDAR, SLAR, and subsurface detection. rescue archaeology. salvage archaeology The location and recording (usually through excavation) of archaeological sites in advance of highway construction, drainage projects, or urban development. secondary context The location of archaeological malerial that has moved from its original position of discard or deposition by subsequent human aclivity or natural phenomena. segmentary society A relatively small and autanomous group, usually of agriculturalists, who regulate their own affairs. Members of a segmentary society occupy a shared territory, in communities with linked descent from a common ancestor and shared cosmologies or ethnic identity. seriation A relative dating technique based on the chronological ordering of a group o/ artifacts or assemblages, where the most similar are placed adjacent photogrammetry The technique of using multiple photographs to create ac folly textured 3D models. phylogenetic analysis The study of the evolutionary history and relationships (phylogeny) between individuals or groups of organisms. postprecessual archaeology Explanation formulated in reaction to the perceived limitations of functional-processual archaealogy. Tt eschews generalization in favor of an individualizing approach that is influenced by the structuralist approach, Critical Theory, and neo- Marxist thought. potassium-argon dating A method used to date rocks up to thousands ol millions of years old, though iLis restricted Lo volcanic material no more recent than around 100,000 years old. One of the most widely used methods in the dating of carly hominin sites in Africa. prehistory The period of human history before the advent of writing, prestige goods A term used to designate a limited range of exchange goods to which a sociely ascribes high slalus or value. primary context The original pasition of discard or deposition of an object. pri ve valuables A term coined by George Dalton (1926-1999) to describe the tokens of wealth and prestige, often of specially valued items (see prestige goods), that were used in the ceremonial exchange systems of nonstate societies (see sphere of exchange); examples include the shell necklaces and bracelets of the kufa system. processual archaeology An approach that stresses the dynamic relationship between social and economic aspects of culture and the environment as the basis for understanding the processes of culture change. Uses the scientific methodology ol problem statement, hypothesis formulation, and subsequent testing, The earlier functional-processual archaeology has been contrasted with cognitive processual archaeology, where the emphasis is on integrating ideological and symbolic aspects. Proto-Indo-European The reconstructed common ancestor ofa widespread family of languages including the majority of European language groups: Italic, Germanic Celtic, Ballic, Slavonic, Greek, and Indo ‘Iranian. simple random sampling A type of probabilistic sampling where the areas to be sampled are chosen using a table of random numbers, Drawbacks include: (1) defining the site’s boundarics initially; {2) the nature ot random number tables results in some areas being allotted clusters of sample squares while others remain untouched. simulation The formulation and computer implementation of dynamic models, i.e. models concerned with change through Lime. Simulation is a useful explanatory device, and can be of considerable help in the development of explanation. site A distinct spatial clustering of artifacts, features, structures, and organic and environmental remains—the residue of human activity. state A term used to describe a social formation defined by distinct territorial boundedness and characterized by strong central government, in which the operation of political power is sanctioned by legitimate force. In cultural evolutionist models, it ranks second only lo an empire as the most complex societal development stage. step-trenching An excavation method used on very deep sites, such as West Asian tell sites, in which the excavalion proceeds downward in a series of gradually narrowing steps. stratification The laying down or depositing of strata, or layers (also called deposits), one above the other, A succession of layers should provide a relative chronological sequence, with Lhe earliest at the bottom and the latest at the tap. See relative dating. stratified random sampling A form of probabilistic sampling in which the region or site is divided into natural zones, or strata, such as cultivated land and forest. Unils are then chosen by a random number procedure to give cach zone a number of squares proportional to its’ area, so overcoming the inherent bias of purely random sampling. stratigraphy The study and validation of stratification; the analysis in the vertical (time) dimension, of a series of layers in the horizontal (space) dimension. Il is often used as a relative dating technique to assess the temporal sequence of artifact deposition. systematic sampling 4 form of probabilistic sampling employing a grid of equally spaced locations, e.g. selecting every other square. This method of regular spacing runs the risk of missing (or hitting) every single example if the distribution itself is regularly spaced. systemic context A behavioral system in which artifacts are part of the ongoing process of manufacture, use, reuse, and discard. thermoluminescence (TL) dating A dating technique that relies indirectly on radioactive decay, overlapping with radiocarbon in the time period for which itis useful. 1l also has Uhe potential for dating earlier periods, and has much in common with electron spin resonance (ESR). Three Age System A classification system devised by C. J. Thomsen (1788-1865) for the sequence of technological periods (stone, bronze, and iron) in European prehistory. It established the principle that, by classifying artifacts, one could produce a chronological ordering. Total Station An electronic/oplical instrument used in surveying and to record excavations. trace-element analysis The use of chemical techniques, such as neutron activation analysis or X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, for determining the incidence of trace elements in rocks, These methods are widely used in the identification of raw-material sources for the production of stone tools. urban revolution A term coined by Gordon Childe (1892-1957) to describe the process by which small non-literate agricultural villages were transformed into large, socially complex urban societies. Wheeler box-grid An excavation technique developed by Mortimer Wheeler (1890-1976) and based on the work of Augustus Pitt- Rivers (1827-1900). It involves retaining intact balks of earth between excavation grid squares, so that different layers can be correlated across the site in the vertical profiles.