War and Peace - Canada's Foundation | PDF

Summary

This document explores the Seven Years' War and its causes, focusing on the impact on Canada. It examines various perspectives, from Halifax merchants to Acadian farmers, alongside the war's effects and long-term consequences on Canadian history. Keywords include Canadian history, the Seven Years' War, and Acadians.

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5 War and Peace Chapter How did military events and their consequences contribute INQUIRY to the foundations of Canada? Key ▲ Conquest and Consequences CONCEPT...

5 War and Peace Chapter How did military events and their consequences contribute INQUIRY to the foundations of Canada? Key ▲ Conquest and Consequences CONCEPT Canadians are proud of their ability to find peaceful solutions to problems. It is part of who we are: we work together to settle disputes without using violence. Occasionally, though, talking and negotiating fail. Sometimes, people get into fights. Countries that cannot agree sometimes get into fights too—they go to war. War involves the use of organized force on a large scale to attain a goal. Superpowers You may have heard the term superpower. It refers to a country that is more powerful than almost all other countries. Superpowers dominate world affairs. Today, for example, the United States is the world’s largest superpower. In the 1700s, France and England were rival superpowers. Both countries had huge, well-equipped armies and strong navies. Both were wealthy. Both controlled vast empires. These empires included colonies in North America. 98 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 The French and English at War France and England were often in conflict with one another. This happened because they both wanted the same thing. They wanted more territories, including those in North America. They wanted the resources in these territories. They were Honing rivals for power in Europe and on the high seas. Between 1690 and 1763, France and England were almost always at war with each other. Your Skills In this chapter, you will learn about the Seven Years’ War. France Do you trust and England fought for control of New France. You will look at the everything you read? causes of the war and the effect war had on different groups living in The Skill Check North America at the time. Finally, you will discover the long-term feature in this effects of the war, which helped to shape the country we live in today. chapter shows you how to Identify Perspectives on War Facts, Opinions, and Bias. This skill is As you read this chapter, think about the war through the eyes of those important to your affected by it. Here’s what some of those people might have thought studies because it about the looming war. Acadian farmer: Why can’t will help you think both sides just leave us in Halifax merchant: If critically about your peace? Why do we have to our navy can defeat choose to support one side research findings. the French, we will or the other? have a much larger The project at the market for our goods. end of the chapter Should I be planning will ask you to to set up business in Québec? use this skill as you identify a turning point in Canadian history. Canadien habitant: Mi’kmaq woman: We have If the English come lived peacefully with the here, will we be Acadians. The British have Mohawk trapper: We have a forced to give up been our enemy since they strong alliance with the French. our livelihoods, raided us to enslave us. If Will we have to defend them in homes, rights, the British come, will they this war? What is this war going language, and take our land? to mean for the fur trade? religion? Think ▲ 1. Have you or a relative of yours lived 2. Think about the perspectives you have through war? Do you think that all people read above. Then create a chart to record AHEAD involved in an armed conflict have similar information about how war affected each opinions about it? How and why would of these people. Fill in the category people’s opinions be different? “Effects of War” as you read the rest of the chapter. Affected Group Perspectives about War Effects of War Halifax merchants need to expand business 99 VOICES VOICES AND VISIONS AND VISIONS A Story of Canada SKILL CHECK: Identify Facts, Opinions, and Bias he British won the Battle on the Plains of Abraham. This is a fact. What did the T battle contribute to the foundations of Canada? That is a matter of opinion. When people give an opinion without facts to back it up, they are showing bias. To study history, you need to know the difference between facts and opinions. You need to spot bias. Then you can judge historical accounts for yourself. Facts] Bias [] Information that is accepted as correct Chances are that if you live in Calgary, and true is a fact. It is important to get you are a Flames hockey fan. If you live the facts right so that we can be sure of in Edmonton, you are likely an Oilers what happened and when. hockey fan. Favouring one hockey team Can a fact be wrong? People may because we live in the same city is a type believe something to be true. They think of bias. We all have biases. They make it is a fact. Then, new information comes us more accepting of some things than along that proves it is not true. For of others. We can be biased about example, long ago people believed the something and not even be aware of it. sun revolved around the earth. Then, When studying history, you need to new technology revealed that the earth ask yourself if a source favours one revolves around the sun. So sometimes perspective over another. Bias is harmful a “fact” can be wrong. if it leaves out important information. This would present an inaccurate picture Opinions ] of the past. When people give their point of view or When you study history, ask judge something, they are expressing yourself what bias the person who their personal opinion. For example, let’s created the source may have had. assume you said, “Harry Potter books Here are some questions to ask are dull!” You would be expressing an when looking for bias: opinion. Others might disagree with you. What is the source? Who is the Some people try to present author? Who is the intended opinions as facts. As a student of audience? history, you must be on the When was the source created? How lookout for that. might this colour the point of view? In a small group, decide In history, if you decide Are strongly positive or negative which is the “best” that one fact is more words or phrases used? computer game. Identify important than another fact, Are opinions supported by facts? (a) facts, (b) opinions, you are expressing an opinion. Is important information left out? and (c) biases. You could be right. If you want Is the information one-sided? Can I others to respect your opinion, use confirm the information in other facts to support your point of view. sources? 100 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 Background to War W hen the Seven Years’ War broke out in 1756, it was close to being a world war. As well as in Europe, France and France claimed was huge. French colonists lived on Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island), Cape Breton, and in Louisiana in the England fought in India, the Caribbean, and south. Acadia belonged to the British, but it Africa. In all these places, the two was populated by French-speaking people. Focus countries had colonies—and The heart of New France was the Why were France resources—they were determined colony along the St. Lawrence River. About and England drawn to protect or expand. 50 000 French colonists lived there. By into conflict in What were the specific 1750, most of the population had been North America? causes of tensions in North born in New France. These colonists were America? What was each side’s no longer Europeans. They had begun to perspective? Were they prepared for war? In see themselves as a new people—the this section, you’ll discover the answers to Canadiens. these questions. New France felt secure—perhaps too secure. It felt protected by the home country, which supplied soldiers, and by The French Perspective] the mighty fortresses at Québec and By 1750, the French were very well Louisbourg. Surely the English armies established in North America. The area could never get past these barriers! The Canadiens were the Francophone citizens of Québec. A Francophone is a person whose first language is French. After the First World War, English-speaking Canadians no longer wished to be known as British subjects. They called themselves “Canadians”. That is when the term French-Canadian began to be used more often in referring to Francophones. Figure 5.1 Eastern North America, about 1750. The grey areas are those territories that were in dispute. Why do you think the French and English both felt hemmed in? How would the Haudenosaunee [hah-duh-nuh-SAH-nee] feel about the tensions between the French and English? 101 VOICES VOICES AND VISIONS AND VISIONS A Story of Canada The English Perspective “England” versus “Britain” English colonists from the Thirteen In this book, you have been reading Colonies far outnumbered the French about England and Britain, or Great colonists of New France. They wanted to Britain. The terms do not mean quite move into the interior of North America. the same thing. Great Britain (“Britain” They needed more farmland for their for short) is an island in Western growing population. They also wanted to Europe. Together, England, Scotland, trade with the First Nations in the interior. and Wales share the island. With Yet they could not cross the Allegheny Northern Ireland, they form the Mountains to settle in the Ohio River Valley. country called the United Kingdom of France had claimed the area for itself and Great Britain and Northern Ireland. had built forts to protect it. The Thirteen Historically, Great Britain is often Colonies felt blocked on the north and west. called England because England was In the Atlantic region, control of the the largest member of the partnership. fisheries was at stake. The Atlantic fisheries produced tonnes of cod and other fish for dinner tables back in Europe. The English wanted to control this profitable resource. England also wanted to gain control of the Strengths and major gateway to the continent: the St. Weaknesses ] Lawrence River. As war approached, each side in the conflict The English felt hemmed in. Yet they assessed its strengths and weaknesses. Read had the most powerful navy in the world. the chart below. Which side do you think The temptation to use it against the French was in the stronger position? Why do you must have been great. think so? British Strengths French Strengths the most powerful navy in Europe the most powerful army in Europe prosperous colonies in New England, which could strong fortresses at Louisbourg and Québec provide military supplies many First Nations allies, including the Mi’kmaq Haudenosaunee allies (later in the war) [MIG-mah], Maliseet [MAL-ih-seet], Canadian Mohawks, Innu [IN-noo], Algonquin [al-GONG-kwin], Wendat [WAH-n-dot], Ojibwa [oh-JIB-way], Odawa [oh-DAH-wuh], and Abenaki [a-buh-NA-kee] British Weaknesses French Weaknesses an army that was not used to waging forest warfare dependence on France for supplies major challenges: that is, the need to capture the a vast territory that was hard to defend well-defended French fortresses a single entry route to the colony: the constant bickering among the Thirteen Colonies St. Lawrence River (In time of war, an enemy could block it.) military and government officials who could not agree on a defence policy 102 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 CASE Fortress Québec STUDY By 1750, Québec had grown to be the largest town in New France, with a population of about 8000. It was the centre of French power in North America. In a way, Québec was two towns. The Upper Town was a walled fortress located high above the river, atop an imposing cliff. It included the governor’s mansion and the homes of the wealthy. The Lower Town was the port, Respond huddled between the river and the cliff. Stone warehouses lined the Look at the harbourfront, where ships arrived to deliver their cargoes and to take illustration of on furs and other goods bound for France. Tradespeople, labourers, Québec in Figure 5.2. Who or what and shopkeepers all lived in the narrow streets of the Lower Town. do you think the Québec lay at a narrowing of the St. Lawrence River. It was the fortress was built gateway to the colony. All ships coming up the river had to pass to protect? Who or within range of its cannons. The French were confident that no what would not be enemy could overcome its defences. protected by this fortress? Locate each of the following: A - the fort, with the governor’s mansion, the Château St-Louis B - a church C - walls and fortifications D - the Jesuit college E - a cathedral F - a seminary for the training of priests G - the hospital H - the home of the Catholic bishop I - a separate fort J - the Lower Town Figure 5.2 Québec in 1720. Think about ways that paintings and drawings could be used as sources of information at that time. Figure 5.3 Québec, the only fortified city in North America, as it looks today. Why do you think the United Nations named parts of the Old City a World Heritage Site? 103 VOICES VOICES AND VISIONS AND VISIONS A Story of Canada War Rumblings in the West [] The war for North America began in the Ohio River Valley. In 1754, a British force led by General George Washington marched into the valley. In time, Washington would become the first president of the United States. On this occasion, however, he suffered defeat. The next year, the British tried again with a much bigger force. The result was the same. The French had successfully adopted the battle tactics of their First Nations allies. For the moment, New France was secure. Even so, the British were determined Figure 5.4 A drummer and a soldier of New to drive the French out of North America. France, about 1690, drawn by historical artist The British prime minister, William Pitt, Michel Pétard. At any one time, up to a third of the promised to send more soldiers, more ships, population of Québec were soldiers sent from France to defend the colony. Some were teenagers. and more money. How would this affect the character of the community? Figure 5.5 Louisbourg viewed from the harbour, as it would have looked about 1744. It was painted by historical artist Lewis Parker in the 1980s. The painting shows the King’s Bastion barracks in the background. The governor lived in the left wing while the soldiers lived in the right wing. Louisbourg was an important port on the North Atlantic trade routes. It was also a fishing port. Why do you think it was so important to the French to defend Louisbourg? 104 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 Louisbourg was the French naval base on the eastern coast of Canada. After the war, all that was left of Louisbourg was a pile of rocky rubble. For nearly 150 years, the site lay deserted. Then, about 1890, amateur historians John S. McLennan and his daughter, Katharine, took an interest in the site. They researched extensively for two decades. They campaigned to restore the town. The government of Canada finally declared the area a National Historic Site in 1928. In the 1960s, work began in earnest to rebuild the fortress as it would have looked in the 1750s. Today the Fortress of Louisbourg stands again. Visitors stroll through the streets down to the waterfront. They admire the furnishings in the governor’s mansion. Costumed actors make it seem as if you’ve stepped back in time 250 years. Projects like this help Canadians feel a strong connection with our history. It helps us know who we are. Figure 5.6 Activities at the reconstructed Fortress of Louisbourg. How would a local hotel operator, a Canadian historian, and a taxpayer each view the process of reconstruction? ▲ Think It a) Make a two-column chart. Record the key b) Decide which factor you think was the factors leading to war from the French and most important for each side. Explain your Through English perspectives. Don’t forget to think reasoning. about international factors. Key Factors French Perspective English Perspective 105 VOICES VOICES AND VISIONS AND VISIONS A Story of Canada Prelude to War: Acadia peace. It seemed that the Acadians’ troubles T he Acadians were the descendants of the French colonists who had first farmed the shores of the Bay of were over. As you will see in this section, however, the Acadians became victims of a Focus Fundy in the 1600s. Acadia had war they did not want. Why did the changed hands many times in the English expel the An Acadian is a Francophone citizen seventeenth century. First the Acadians from their of Acadia. English captured it. Then the land in Nova Scotia? French did. Back and forth it went. By 1710, most of Acadia was Tech Link firmly under British control. The Acadian Way of Life Acadians had developed a unique To see a By 1750, more than 10 000 Acadians lived identity because they had been re-enactment of on small farms and in villages nestled along cut off from the rest of New Acadians preserving the shores of the Bay of Fundy. Many had France for so long. Britain fish, open Chapter 5 intermarried with their Mi’kmaq trading changed the colony’s name to on your Voices and partners. They were mainly French- Nova Scotia. It allowed the Visions CD-ROM. speaking Catholics. Over the years, they Acadians to live their lives in created their own way of life. It was based on fishing and their unique methods of farming. To better remember what you’re reading, try identifying the main idea in every paragraph Caught in the Middle as you read. Britain had always wanted to populate Nova Scotia with people who spoke English. As tensions between England and France grew, the governor of Nova Scotia, Charles Lawrence, began to wonder if the Acadians might side with the French. The Mi’kmaq and Maliseet had trade and family ties with the Acadians. Over the years, they had captured hundreds of English ships. The Acadians had always refused to swear loyalty to the British Crown. In 1755, Lawrence gave the Acadians an ultimatum (a threat of serious penalties): swear your loyalty or lose your land. The Acadians did not want to fight. They wanted to remain neutral. They promised not to take up arms against the English, but they refused Figure 5.7 The main Acadian settlements around 1750. Think about to take the oath. That set the stage for le Acadia’s location. Why did both Britain and France want to control Grand Dérangement—the Great Upheaval. the colony? 106 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 CASE The Expulsion of the Acadians: STUDY Was There Any Other Way? In modern Canada, we believe that people have certain human rights. For example, Canadian citizens have a right to live in Canada. We have the right not to be torn from our families and shipped off to foreign lands. Our government has the responsibility to protect those rights. It has not always been this way. Just consider what happened to the Acadians in 1755. The Great Deportation—Le Grand Dérangement Governor Lawrence was convinced that the British newcomers in Nova Scotia would not be safe with the Acadians living among them. He thought he found proof of this when British troops captured Fort Beauséjour from the French in 1755. Inside, they found 300 armed Acadians defending the fort. To Lawrence, this meant that all Acadians were disloyal. The governor gave the order: “The French inhabitants of the province shall be removed out of the country as soon as possible.” British soldiers fell upon the Acadian villages. They rounded up the people at gunpoint. They broke up families and forced them to board ships bound for distant lands. They burned homes and churches. They destroyed farms and drove off animals. How It Ended Most of the Acadians were deported by ship to the New England colonies. Some were sent to the Caribbean, France, or England. A few escaped and went into hiding in the woods. Others made their way to New Orleans, Louisiana, still part of New France. Their descendants formed the Cajun community, which still thrives. Many Acadians didn’t survive the deportation, though. They died of disease, drowning, or starvation. In all, about 10 000 Acadians were driven from their homes. Seeing what happened to the Acadians, the Mi’kmaq and Maliseet abided by the wishes of the British. Figure 5.8 British soldiers forcing Acadians from their homes. The exiles could take only what they could carry. How has Lewis Parker, who created this painting, used facts and emotions to re- create the scene? 107 VOICES VOICES AND VISIONS AND VISIONS A Story of Canada CASE John Winslow was a British army officer who took part in the removal The whole of the French people were drawn STUDY of the Acadians from Grand Pré. together in a group. I then ordered Captain continued Here he tells about what he did: Adams to lead away the young men to the ships. I ordered the prisoners to march. They all answered they would not go without their Respond fathers. I told them that “no” was a word I did not understand. Think about this question: Did Governor Lawrence The King’s command had to be obeyed. I have to abuse people’s human rights? told them that I did not want to use harsh a) With two partners, analyze the facts about the Great Upheaval. means, but there was no time for talking and b) Here are three roles: delay. I ordered the troops to fix their Col. Greenhouse, a British army officer bayonets and march towards the French. The M. Arsenault, an Acadian who refused to take men started off, praying, singing, and crying. the oath Along the way they were met by the women Mme LeBlanc, an Acadian who took the oath and children who were on their knees crying and stayed and praying. Think about how these characters would have viewed the facts. c) What evidence supports your position? Record Source: Colonel John Winslow, the evidence supporting each point of view in a The Journal of Colonel John Winslow graphic organizer. (Nova Scotia Historical Society Collections, Vol. III). d) Now develop an argument to support or oppose your response to the question from your own point of view. Figure 5.9 Acadian singer Jeanne (Doucet) Currie, dressed in traditional clothing. She is attending the World Acadian Congress at Grand Pré, Nova Scotia. She and other Acadians remember their ancestors. People Figure 5.10 Destinations of the Acadian deportees in 1755. Le take part in this type of cultural event for a Grand Dérangement can also be translated as “the Great feeling of connection. Explain what this means Bother.” What comment do you think the Acadians were using an example from your own experience. making when they labelled such a tragedy with that phrase? 108 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 entity IdIdentity A Lasting Identity Can the Acadians’ identity survive in Canada? First consider what the Acadians have done over the past 250 years. In 1763, the war between France and England was over. The Acadians were free to come home. Some returned to the shores of the Bay of Fundy. Most chose to settle in what would become New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, because their original farms in Nova Scotia had been taken. The memories of their exile stayed with the Acadians. They were determined to preserve their culture and way of life. Today, about 300 000 French-speaking Acadians live in Atlantic Canada. In New Brunswick, about a third of the people speak French as their first language. The province is the only one in Canada that is officially bilingual. Acadians have their own schools, music, plays, and novels. They even have their own flag. It is modelled on the French flag to show the Acadians’ bond to their French heritage. Respond The Acadians keep their cultural identity What factors do alive in many ways. In New Brunswick, Le you think boost a Pays de La Sagouine is a re-creation of an people’s sense of Acadian village. At Grand Pré, Nova Scotia, an cultural identity? annual festival draws 5000 Acadians. They What could you enjoy a weekend of picnics, songs, dancing, do to help the Figure 5.11 Viola Léger Acadians protect and games. Every few years, Acadians hold a portrays La Sagouine, an their identity? big family reunion. Acadian washerwoman who In 2004, Nova Scotia hosted the World tells her stories of life in Acadian Congress. It marked the 400th Acadia. Léger played this role anniversary of the first French settlement in North more than 2000 times. Antonine Maillet created La America at St. Croix Island. The event drew more than Sagouine. Maillet is famous 250 000 Acadians. They came from as far away as for her many plays and novels Spain, Louisiana, and Hong Kong. Governor General about Acadia. How has she Adrienne Clarkson offered apologies for the expulsion helped keep the Acadian of the Acadians on behalf of the British. identity vibrant and alive? ▲ Think It Do you want to be able to identify bias? Put b) Imagine you are Governor Lawrence. Write yourself in the time of a historical event. a letter back explaining why you have to Through a) Imagine you are Édouard Arsenault, a expel the Acadians. young Acadian in 1755. Write a letter to Alternatively, write a brief skit in which the Governor Lawrence explaining why you two discuss this issue. The scene: Arsenault wish to remain neutral in the conflict is assisting the governor with a broken coach between Britain and France. wheel. 109 VOICES VOICES AND VISIONS AND VISIONS A Story of Canada The Struggle for Canada F or a few years, the French, Canadian Mohawks, Ojibwa, and other First Nations successfully fought the English. Inside the fortress, the people were cut off from supplies and reinforcements. Their food supplies ran low. They watched as the They kept the enemy at bay in the Ohio British sank their ships, one by one. The River Valley and the Great Lakes region. people weakened as the British launched a There was only one way to win steady rain of cannonballs onto the fort. Focus New France. England would have After seven weeks of bombardment, the How was the to gain control of France’s two French at Louisbourg surrendered. Battle on the centres of power in North America: Louisbourg and Québec. Plains of Abraham Onward to Canada a turning point in In this section, you will see how they accomplished this daunting With the route to Canada now open, the Canadian history? task. British lost little time. The next spring, in 1759, Major-General James Wolfe led a fleet up the St. Lawrence River. He had about Capturing Louisbourg 200 ships carrying 9000 soldiers and Louisbourg had to be captured first. It 18 000 sailors. The line of ships stretched guarded the St. Lawrence River, which led to for 150 kilometres. the Québec colony. The battle for Québec unfolded over In the spring of 1758, the British three months. Victory for the British was collected a huge force of warships and never a sure thing. The French commander troops at Halifax. Arriving off Louisbourg was the Marquis de Montcalm. He had that June, the British fleet blockaded the 16 000 troops and a stone fortress that harbour. The British soldiers scrambled would not be captured easily. If Montcalm onshore with their cannons. They cut off could hold out until winter, Wolfe and his the town from the landward side and settled ships would have to retreat before the river in for a long siege (a blockade of a city). froze. Figure 5.12 Louisbourg as the siege began, 1758. Captain Charles Ince, a British soldier who took part in the attack, painted this scene. It shows the British moving their cannons into place. To the right, French ships are anchored in the harbour. In the distance, the British fleet waits offshore. In what ways might the soldier’s bias have affected his interpretation of the scene? 110 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 VOICES The short-term effects of war in New France were dreadful. Mother Marie-Marguerite d’Youville ran a charitable home in Montréal during the war. Here she expresses her despair: “ We had flattered ourselves that France would not abandon us. This country is more and more forsaken. My tears are blinding me. ” Source: L’Hôpital Général des Soeurs Grises de la Charité. Montréal (nd), Vol. 1, pp. 238–240 (Trans.). Quoted in K.A. MacKirdy et al., Changing Perspectives in Canadian History (Don Mills, ON: J.M. Dent, 1967), p. 65. Points of View before cannon fire],” declared one French officer, “but we are determined that you shall the Battle never set foot within its walls.” Despite Wolfe and Montcalm faced different major damage to the city, Montcalm would challenges. Wolfe was on the attack. He and not release his army to fight. his troops faced a well-defended General Wolfe wrote to his mother: Tech Link fortress perched atop a high cliff. “My antagonist [Montcalm] has wisely To see a re-enactment It appeared impossible to climb. shut himself up so that I can’t get at him.” of the life of a French Unlike Louisbourg, Québec could Wolfe unleashed a savage attack on the soldier at Québec not be surrounded from the countryside. Troops destroyed villages and before the siege, open countryside behind the fort. set fire to hundreds of farmhouses and Chapter 5 on your Therefore, Wolfe could not cut off barns. Frightened habitant families fled to Voices and Visions supplies. Time was short. There the protection of the walled fortress. It was CD-ROM. would be only a few weeks until a terrifying tactic, but it did no good. The the cold weather set in. Wolfe’s French forces would not leave the fortress. only hope was to draw the enemy out onto Winter was setting in. It was time for the open battlefield. the British to leave. For Wolfe, this was the Montcalm, on the other hand, was on time for one last gamble. the defence. He and his French forces faced a huge fleet of British ships and a well- The Battle on the Plains trained army. He believed they were safe inside the stone fortress. They could fire of Abraham [] their cannons at will on the enemy below. Wolfe came up with a plan. On the high They believed help was on the way. The clifftop behind the fortress was a farmer’s best thing to do was to wait. field known as the Plains of Abraham. If British soldiers could secretly make their way there, they could attack the French A Standoff [ where their defences were weak. The French and the British bombarded Just before midnight on 12 September each other for almost nine weeks. The 1759, the first British soldiers stepped fortress of Québec was in ruins, but it still ashore. Throughout the night, they crept up had not been captured. “We do not doubt a steep path leading to the field. In a few that you will destroy the town [with hours, the British army was in place on the 111 VOICES VOICES AND VISIONS AND VISIONS A Story of Canada Figure 5.13 The events of the Battle on the Plains of Abraham, shown as if they were all happening at the same time. It is based on a sketch by Hervey Smyth. He was a British soldier who was wounded during the battle. Locate the following: the British fleet, the landing boats, the Plains of Abraham, and the town of Québec. What distortions in the painting might be a result of Smyth’s bias? Plains of Abraham. When dawn broke, the fortress walls? Montcalm decided he couldn’t French were astonished to see thousands of wait. It was a fateful decision. red-coated soldiers in battle position just Montcalm emerged from the city outside the city gates. leading 4000 troops. The British launched a At the fort, Montcalm had 6000 soldiers, massive volley of musket fire. The French including 300 upper Great Lakes Odawa fired back. A fierce battle raged, and both allies. About 4400 professional British Wolfe and Montcalm were killed. After 15 soldiers waited on the Plains. Reinforcements minutes of slaughter, the French turned and had not arrived. What should Montcalm do? fled. In all, 1300 soldiers died on the Plains Should he march out and fight the British of Abraham. It was the bloodiest battle ever head-on? Should he stay safely behind the fought on Canadian soil. The English are bringing their cannons up the cliff. The longer I wait, the stronger they become. I have more soldiers than they do on the field. I could wait for reinforcements, but if I attack now perhaps I will catch them before they are ready. Figure 5.14 A portrait of the Marquis de Montcalm. Most historians blame Montcalm for the loss of Québec. They argue that if he had waited for reinforcements to arrive, he might have won the battle and the French may have won the war. What do you think? Did Montcalm make the best decision he could? 112 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 allies were no longer willing to fight. On 8 September 1760, the French surrendered at Montréal. New France passed into British hands. The Legacy of the Colony With their First Nations friends and allies, the Canadiens accomplished a great deal during the over 150 years that they controlled the St. Lawrence River Valley. They were the first newcomers in the Figure 5.15 The Plains of Abraham as it looks today. In the territory that would one day be Canada. nineteenth century, the British built the Citadel, which you French traders pioneered the fur trade. They can see in the foreground. In 1908, the National Battlefields travelled all the way to the Western Plains. Commission was created to preserve the site. Why would we In spite of the harsh climate, the Canadiens want to preserve a battle site? created successful farms. They cleared the Following the battle, the English troops land, dug wells, and built roads. They entered the city. “Québec is nothing but a started up shops and businesses. Through shapeless mass of ruins,” reported one the Catholic Church, they began a tradition eyewitness. “Confusion, disorder, pillage of public responsibility for education, reign even among the inhabitants.” French health, and the disadvantaged. These are colonists and British soldiers alike roots of values central to the contemporary scrambled to find food during the winter. Canadian identity. More British soldiers died from disease than The Canadiens proved that a colony had died in the battle. could survive in this difficult land. By the The remaining French soldiers fell time the English arrived in the St. Lawrence, back to Montréal. Here they held out for a the Canadiens had already laid the few months. Many of their First Nations foundations of a successful country. ▲ Think It 1. Review the section titled “The Struggle for What are the facts? What are opinions? Canada.” Are the opinions supported by facts, Through a) Make a list of the key events that took reasoned arguments, or respected place, with their locations and dates. sources? b) Put them in order and create a timeline. What is the bias? How do you know? Alternatively, create an illustrated map 3. What might have happened if French ships showing these events. Label each had arrived in Québec before the British event, including the date. ships did in 1759? Write a front-page 2. Do an Internet or library search for newspaper story or narrative poem. In it, information about the Battle on the describe how events might have unfolded. Plains of Abraham. Find what looks like a 4. How did the citizens of New France lay the useful source. Then answer the following foundations of the Canada you know questions: today? 113 VOICES VOICES AND VISIONS AND VISIONS A Story of Canada The First Nations and the War A s you will discover in this section, the First Nations were deeply involved in the wars between the French and the The First Nations did not stop fighting after the French surrendered. The First Nations and the English first had to English. Most First Nations supported the negotiate neutrality. Only then could the French, with whom they had a long history English declare victory. of trading. Some Haudenosaunee Focus sided with the English. Reasons for Anxiety What role did The First Nations fought independently against the enemy. Following the war, France and England the First Nations They also fought and died made peace. They signed a treaty in 1763. play in the war alongside their allies on the It gave England possession of most of North between France battlefield. At Québec, for example, America. The treaty disappointed the First and England? 300 Odawa sharpshooters helped Nations. The future of their land was at defend the city. They could not stake, yet no one had invited them to take have known that the winner of this war part in the peace process. The French would take control of all the lands, including governor made the English promise not to the First Nations territories. take revenge against the First Nations peoples who had sided with the French. As you learned in Chapter 4, British traders took over the French fur trade. They did not follow the same trading practices as the French. They were not as generous in giving gifts such as tobacco, ammunition, and wampum. The British did not understand that exchanging gifts was how First Nations people built trust. The First Nations were worried about the newcomers. English farmers began to move into the Ohio River Valley. Gradually, the First Nations were losing their lands. They began to consider war. Figure 5.16 The Great Lakes area, about 1750. How would the Haudenosaunee territory act like a buffer between the French and English? VOICES Minweweh was a chief of the Ojibwa people. He told the British, “ Although you have conquered the French, you have not conquered us. We are not your slaves. These lakes, these woods and mountains, were left to us by our ancestors. They are our inheritance, and we will part with them to none. ” Source: Kevin Reed, Aboriginal Peoples: Building for the Future (Canadian Challenge Series) (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 36. 114 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 Pontiac’s War against the trading frontier south and west of Lake Erie. They were remarkably successful, the British capturing seven of ten English forts. The person who inspired a war against the Pontiac hoped that the French would English was a man named Pontiac. This come to help him. After all, he and his allies leader of the Odawa convinced several First had aided the French in their war with the Nations to join together to drive the British English. The French, however, had already out of the Ohio River Valley. In May 1763, surrendered at Montréal. The British sent in Pontiac and the Odawa laid siege to the troops to fight the First Nations. The British fort at Detroit. Around the same alliance that Pontiac had formed fell apart. time, Pontiac’s allies captured forts along CASE Tactics versus Physical Strength STUDY When you play hockey or soccer, good tactics can help you beat a stronger opponent. The same is true in war. Fort Michilimackinac [mish-il-ih-MAK-ih-nak] was held by the British. It was located where Lake Huron and Lake Michigan meet. The Chippewa [CHIP-uh- wah] who lived in the area joined Pontiac’s fighting force. Their first target was the fort, but the fort was too strong to attack outright. Instead, they devised a clever plan. The men gathered outside the walls of the fort and began a game of lacrosse. British soldiers idly watched as the players chased the ball back and forth. Suddenly, one of the players tossed the ball through the fort’s open gate. It seemed to Respond be an accident. As the other players Have you ever won chased it into the fort, though, the women a physical sport who had been watching handed the men because of your strong tactics? With weapons they had hidden under their your classmates, clothing. Taking the British by complete discuss what is surprise, the Chippewa captured the fort more important in in just a few minutes. playing team sports: tactics or Figure 5.17 Gates of the reconstructed Fort physical strength. Michilimackinac. Without the element of surprise, do you think the Chippewa would have had much hope of taking over the fort? ▲ Think It 1. The First Nations felt betrayed after the 2. As Britain expanded its control in North Seven Years’ War. Were they betrayed? America, the First Nations were concerned Through How did the English and French view the that their interests would not be respected. situation? Explain your reasoning. What Why did First Nations have good reason to might be your bias in this question? be concerned about their future? 115 VOICES VOICES AND VISIONS AND VISIONS A Story of Canada After the War A fter the war, the Canadiens, English newcomers, and First Nations and Métis peoples were faced with a new of rebuilding the colony. They wondered if they would be allowed to speak French and worship in the Catholic faith. After all, the challenge. How could these new citizens of British had forced the Acadians to abandon a single colony live together in their homes. Would the same thing happen Focus peace? In this section, you will see to the Canadiens? How did the how they struggled to find ways to The new British rulers faced British treatment of meet this challenge. challenges, too. They now had a colony of their new colonies 70 000 people who spoke a different and the people language and practised a different religion. who lived there New Challenges The Canadiens had a different form of influence the Each group had its own concerns government, followed different laws, and future of Canada? as it looked to the future. The First had different ways of doing things. The Nations were tired of war. They English were worried about the First just wanted a return to normal life, but they Nations, too. Many of them had been allies feared that land-hungry newcomers would of the French during the war. How were the flood into their territories. English going to make the Canadiens and The Canadiens feared the worst. Those First Nations peoples loyal subjects of the who stayed in Canada faced the challenge British Crown? Figure 5.18 A painting of Québec in ruins by Richard Short, who was a member of the invading British forces. What aspects of the painting create mood? The war brought devastation to both the city and the countryside, where many farms were destroyed. What effect does war have on civilians? 116 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 The Treaty of Paris, 1763 decide how to govern the colony. What options did they have? The surrender of Montréal in 1760 ended Eviction. Should they evict the Canadiens the fighting over New France. As you from their homes and deport them from learned earlier, though, the conflict between British North America? England and France was fought elsewhere, Assimilation. Should they pressure the too. It continued for three more years in Canadiens to give up their language and Europe and other parts of the world. religion and become loyal British Finally, in 1763, France and Britain subjects? signed the Treaty of Paris, ending the Accomodation. Should they leave the conflict. Under the treaty, France gave up Canadiens alone to live as they always any claim to Québec or any other part of had, with their own religion, language, North America. In return, France received and customs? Guadeloupe, a sugar-producing island in the At the same time, the British had to decide Caribbean. The only parts of New France two more things. Should they make land still in the hands of the French were the agreements with First Nations peoples? And tiny islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon how could they reward the American near the coast of Newfoundland. (Find them colonists of New England? Many of these on the map on page 118.) colonists had fought for Britain in the war. New England farmers wanted land in the Choices for the Future] Ohio River Valley. British traders hoped to be able to set up businesses in Canada. The British had gained control over what had been New France. Now they had to Region of New France Before 1763 After 1763 Québec most heavily settled part of became a British colony New France Nova Scotia all but Cape Breton became Cape Breton was added (or Acadia) British in 1713 Acadians expelled in 1755 Cape Breton controlled by France controlled by the British as called Île Royale part of Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island controlled by France came under British control ( Île Saint-Jean) Newfoundland the British won possession the island came under total of the island in 1713 British control except the the French kept a small offshore islands of Saint- portion of the shoreline Pierre and Miquelon for fishing Figure 5.19 The fate of the five regions of New France. Which country controls the islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon today? 117 VOICES VOICES AND VISIONS AND VISIONS A Story of Canada The Royal Proclamation It also prevented settlement west of the Appalachians. This forced American of 1763 colonists who wanted land to move to The British did not want to evict the Québec. Canadiens from their homes. However, they did want to assimilate them. This means the Canadiens would Recognition for First Tech Link become more like the British and Nations To see a descriptive would lose their language and Pontiac’s acts of war were not in vain. They map related to the culture. The British chose the made the British realize that they had to pay Royal Proclamation, second of the three options listed attention to the demands of the First open Chapter 5 on on page 117. Nations. In the Royal Proclamation of 1763, your Voices and In October 1763, King Britain set aside a huge area of land for the Visions CD-ROM. George III of England signed the First Nations. It included all lands west of Royal Proclamation the Appalachian Mountains and east of the of 1763, which laid out the British Mississippi River. Europeans could not live government’s plans for the colony. To attract there. It seemed that some First Nations had Anglophones to Québec, the Proclamation achieved what they wanted—to continue brought in British institutions and laws. their way of life without interference. Terms of the Royal Proclamation La Nouvelle-France (New France) became the Province of Québec. Québec became much smaller. The interior was set aside for First Nations peoples. A system of British laws and courts replaced the French system. Civil government replaced the military government. The government would consist of a governor, appointed by Britain, and an appointed council of advisors. The Catholic Church lost its ability to tithe. Catholics were not allowed to sit on the council of advisors or to hold senior jobs in government. Figure 5.20 The Proclamation reduced the size of the colony to a small area along the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers. Overall, do you think the British were fair? Explain. 118 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 Figure 5.21 An excerpt from the Royal Proclamation of 1763, signed by King George III. Royal Proclamation of 1763 The duties of citizenship include recognizing the rights of others. How is the king engaged in And whereas great Frauds and Abuses have been active citizenship? What reasons does the committed in purchasing Lands of the Indians, king give for protecting First Nations lands? to the great Prejudice of our Interests, and to the great Dissatisfaction of the said Indians: In order, therefore, to prevent such Irregularities for the future, and to the end that the Indians may be convinced of our Justice and determined Resolution to remove all reasonable Cause of Formal documents like this can be hard to Discontent, We do, with the Advice of our Privy understand. Try “translating” each phrase Council strictly enjoin and require, that no into everyday, modern English. private Person do presume to make any purchase from the said Indians of any Lands reserved to the said Indians. The Québec Act of 1774 ] The attempt to turn Québec into a colony Source: Royal Proclamation of 1763, available at with a British identity failed. The Canadiens http://www.bloorstreet.com/200block/rp1763.htm#7. had developed such a strong sense of Are modern Aboriginal land claims legitimate? According to the Proclamation of 1763, the answer is yes. In it, the British king promises to protect First Nations lands. This document laid the legal grounds for all the land treaties that followed. Today, treaties between First Nations and Canada still rely on the Proclamation as the basic guarantee of Aboriginal rights. For this reason, it is sometimes called the Aboriginal Bill of Rights. These rights are now guaranteed in the Constitution under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Figure 5.22 Almira Augustine, a Mi’kmaq from the Burnt Church Reserve in New Brunswick. Augustine is taking part in a protest about the fishery in August 2000. First Nations across Canada have a legal right to a share of the fishery. Why are documents such as the Proclamation of 1763 so important to First Nations? 119 VOICES VOICES AND VISIONS AND VISIONS A Story of Canada identity that they could not be “made” The Beginnings of a British. They were determined to survive as a people. Only a few hundred English-speaking Bilingual Canada newcomers were attracted to Québec. Bilingualism recognizes two of the peoples Meanwhile, in the Thirteen Colonies, that forged the foundations of Canada. the colonists were becoming restless under Bilingualism means that Canada has two British rule. The British did not want trouble official languages: French and English. It in Québec as well. They needed to keep the means that Canadian citizens have the right colony loyal. They decided the best way to to government services in either language. It do that was to recognize the Canadiens’ means they have the right to do business in rights that had been taken away by the either language. Bilingualism is central to Proclamation. Therefore, in 1774, Britain the Canadian identity. passed a law with new plans for the colony. You will learn more about bilingualism later in this book. For now, it is important to The Québec Act resulted in the survival understand that the origin of bilingualism of the French language in North America. was the Québec Act. The British recognized Consequently, it is known by some as the Canadiens’ right to maintain their the Magna Carta of Francophones. language and traditions. This was a foundation for peace. Québec, and later Canada, became a partnership between French- and English-speaking citizens. Terms of the Québec Act Québec was expanded to the size it had been when it was a colony of France. Much of the land that had been set aside for First Nations became part of Québec. Remaining Aboriginal lands were still protected. French language rights were recognized. The French seigneurial system remained in place. Catholics were given freedom of religion. They were allowed to hold government jobs. French civil law would be used in matters of property, inheritance, and to settle disputes. The Roman Catholic Church got back the power to hold property and to tithe. Figure 5.23 The Québec Act expanded the size of the colony to include the Great Lakes and the Ohio River Valley territory. This was prime fur-trading country. What might the colonists in the Thirteen Colonies think about this? 120 War and Peace ChapterChapter 55 ▲ Think It 1. What was the impact of Britain’s takeover consequences.” Help your viewers of New France? Did the Canadiens get a understand the following: Through bad deal or a good deal? the causes of the Seven Years’ War a) Think about the facts. the effect of the war on the Acadians, b) Present arguments for both sides. the First Nations, and the Canadiens c) Did your opinion change after the long- and short-term consequences considering the facts? Explain. Assess your findings for bias. 2. Working with a partner or in a small 3. How did military events and their group, create any type of multimedia consequences contribute to the display on the concept of “conquest and foundations of Canada? Chapter 5 PROJECT Turning Points Gather Evidence S ome events seem to change everything. After the event, life is different. A turning point can take place without people being aware For the events on your list, find out whether or not they had important long-term consequences. of it. The creation of the Internet was a turning Conduct research on the Internet, in books, or point, yet few people knew about it. on databases. Ask the questions listed in the Skill Check feature on page 100 to help you judge the Turning Points in bias in the information you gather. Your Life Your life has taken certain twists and turns that Back Up Your Choice have affected who you are. What event is the most important turning point? 1. Make a list of the turning points in your life. What biases do you have that might affect your 2. Use these to create a timeline titled “The choice? What facts and arguments can you use Timeline of My Life.” to support your choice? 3. Choose one event that had major consequences for you. How did it affect who you are today? Present Your Turning Point With a partner, create a visual display, write a Turning Points in Canadian news article, videotape a news feature, or write History lyrics for a ballad. Your presentation should show how the event you chose is a turning point Ask yourself what happened in North America that affected the foundations of Canada. between 1740 and 1774. Was there a turning point that changed everything? Looking Back Make a list of events that took place during this time. For ideas, review this chapter. After giving your presentation and viewing other Remember that even small events can have big presentations, think about how you might do consequences. For each event, note what you things differently. How could you improve how know about its short- and long-term effects. you screened for bias? How could you back up your opinions more effectively? 121