BIO Exam Review PDF

Unit 1 : Genetics Meiosis ​ Cell division in reproduce cells ​ Produces gametes, either egg or sperm are haploid ​ Referred to as Reduction division Variation achieved by independent assortment and crossing over ​ Crossing over occurs in prophase I 1.​ Process : during prophase I o...

Unit 1 : Genetics Meiosis ​ Cell division in reproduce cells ​ Produces gametes, either egg or sperm are haploid ​ Referred to as Reduction division Variation achieved by independent assortment and crossing over ​ Crossing over occurs in prophase I 1.​ Process : during prophase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes pair up in a process called synapsis. While paired, non-sister chromatids can exchange genetic material and result in new combinations of alleles on the chromosome that were not present on the parent cell. ​ Independent assortment occurs in metaphase I and anaphase I 2.​ Process : during metaphase I, homologous chromosome pairs align randomly along the metaphase plate - the random positioning of tetrads along the equator. Results in different combinations of chromosomes in the daughter cells, increasing genetic variation. Purpose of meiosis ​ The primary purpose of meiosis is to reduce the chromosome number by half and create genetically diverse gametes ​ Contribute to genetic variation Spermatogenesis Oogenesis ​ Production of mature sperm cells ​ Production of mature egg cells ​ Takes place in testes ​ Takes place in ovaries ​ 4 sperm cells are produced ​ Only one ovum is produced ​ Cytoplasm is divided equally ​ Cytoplasm is unequally divided Nondisjunction ​ Failure of chromosomes to separate properly ​ Nondisjunctions can occur because of a failure of homologous chromosomes to separate in anaphase I in the failure of sister chromatids to separate anaphase II in meiosis or mitosis ​ The daughter cell with one less chromosome is called monosomy ​ The daughter cell with one extra chromosome is called trisomy ​ Resulting issues : down syndrome, turner syndrome, triple-X syndrome  Results in abnormal number of chromosomes in daughter cells Mendelian Genetics ​ Heterozygous - describes an individual that carries two different alleles in a given characteristic ​ Homozygous - describes an individual that carries two of the same alleles for a given characteristic ​ Dominant - the allele that if present, is always expressed ​ Recessive - the allele that is expressed only if it is not in the presence of the dominant allele ​ Genotype - the genetic makeup of an individual ​ Phenotype - an individual's outward appearance with respect to a specific characteristic Monohybrid cross ​ A cross between two parents resulting in hybrid children, follow one trait, one set of alleles, one gene Let E rep cyclops Let e rep compound eyes e e E Ee Ee E Ee Ee F1 pheno - 100% cyclops Geno - 100% hetero E e E EE Ee e Ee ee F2 pheno - cyclops 75%, compound eye 25% Geno - 1 homo dom, 2 hetero, 1 homo rec *3:1 when you see this in nature it is the mendelian ratio of two heterozygous crossing, whichever has the 3 is the dominant trait  ​ The expected phenotypic ratio is 3:1 for a cross between two heterozygous parents ​ The expected phenotypic ratio is 100% dominant for a cross between two purebred parents (because dom allele will show) Test cross A test cross is used to determine the genotype of an organism showing a dominant phenotype but whose genotype is unknown. To figure this out, you cross the organism with a homozygous recessive (aa) individual, because you know the homozygous recessive parent can only contribute alleles. Example : Suppose you have a plant showing a dominant flower color (let’s call it A for dominant red, and a for recessive white). ​ You want to know whether this plant’s genotype is AA or Aa. ​ You cross it with a plant that is aa (homozygous recessive, white flowers) A a a Aa aa a Aa aa Genotypic ratio : 1 Aa : 1 aa Phenotypic ratio : 1 red flower : 1 white flower ​ If all offspring have the dominant phenotype (red flowers), the parent is AA (homozygous dominant). ​ If the offspring are a mix of dominant and recessive phenotypes, the parent is Aa (heterozygous). Dihybrid cross to determine genotypes and phenotypes ​ A cross between two parents following two traits, two sets of alleles in their hybrid offspring When crossing heterozygous individuals for both traits (i.e., AaBb × AaBb), we can calculate the probability of various genotypes and phenotypes in the offspring. Each parent can produce four possible types : AA, Ab, aB, ab AB Ab aB ab AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb Pheno - 9:3:3:1 * 9:3:3:1 is the mendelian rate of a dihybrid cross of two heterozygous, the 9 in the ratio are the dom traits Beyond Mendel Incomplete Dominance - the cross between two parents resulting in a hybrid that shows a blending of two traits (eg. snapdragon) *Produces prime for example B prime* CoDominance - The cross between two parents results in hybrid offspring that show both traits (e.g ermine chicken) Geno and Pheno 1:2:1 ratio equal each other, known as the incomplete or codominance medallion ratio. Sex Linkage - These traits are passed onto their offspring using the X or Y chromosomes (mostly X). The diseases have a greater chance of occurring in males because females have back up X chromosomes. Karyotype - the chromosomes of an individual that have been sorted and arranged according to size and type. Karyotype during pregnancy Prenatal testing - testing for a genetic order that occurs prior to birth 2 methods ​ Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) - As early as eight weeks into a pregnancy, technique can be used to remove cells from the outer membrane (chorion) surrounding the embryo. ​ Amniocentesis - Once the fetus is large enough, it becomes possible to obtain cells from the fluid-filled sac that surrounds the fetus, amniocentesis involves the use of a long syringe and an ultrasound machine. The collected cells are then used to prepare a karyotype chart. Sex Chromosomes - chromosomes that differ in males and females of the same species the combination of sex chrmoesomes determines sex of offspring. Males - Xy Females XX Chromosomal abnormalities Trisomy - A chromosomal abnormality in which there are three homologous chromosomes in place of a homologous pair. Monosomy - a chromosomal abnormality in which there is a single chromosome in place of a homologous pair. ​ Down syndrome - a chromosomal abnormality in which an individual has three copies of chromosome number 21 also referred to as trisomy 21. Probability of down syndrome increases with the age of women. ​ Turner syndrome - one X no Y Female in appearance but do not mature sexually and are sterile. Most Turner syndrome fetuses are miscarried before the 20th week of pregnancy. ​ Klinefelter syndrome - two X and one Y sex chromosome. Males are usually sterile and exhibit some feminine body characteristics, but severity varies. Pedigrees Pedigree - a diagram of an individual’s ancestors used in human genetics to analyze the Mendelian inheritance of a certain trait; also used for selective breeding of plants and animals. Usage for Pedigree ​ Help trace the genotypes and phenotypes in a family ​ Can determine if and how any particular trait runs in a family ​ Pedigrees can be used to track the inheritance of both desirable and undesirable traits Types of Pedigrees ​ Sex - linked receive (when dad gives to daughter, mother gives to son) ​ Autosomal Recessive ​ Autosomal Dominant Unit 2 : Evolution Darwin's theory : 1.​ All organisms produce more offspring that can survive 2.​ Due to this overproduction organisms constantly struggle for survival 3.​ Individuals within a species will vary 4.​ The best adapted individuals will survive 5.​ Organisms which survive will pass the trait onto their offspring Survival of the fittest - slight variation within a individual may allow it to be better equipped to live in an environment Genotypes have to be there from the beginning - cannot just make it Lamarck theory : 1.​ The theory of need - organisms could produce new parts or organs as they need them 2.​ Theory of use and disuse - organs and parts only remain health and strong as long as they are used 3.​ Theory of inheritance - all changes that an organism makes to itself in its life are passed onto its offspring Homologous : different pressures, different adaptations (common ancestor) e.g bird wing and human hand Analogous : same pressure led to same adaptations (no common ancestor) e.g insect wing and bird wing Hardy wenberg Two main characteristics of a population : 1.​ Population exhibits variability 2.​ Population tends to remain stable Hardy weinberg principles : ​ Came up with these principles that state a population will not evolve if : 1.​ Population must be large (changes in gene frequency not due to a change of allele) 2.​ Random mating 3.​ No migration 4.​ No mutation 5.​ No natural selection *most populations evolve because they disprove these principles Evidence for evolution 1.​ Fossil record - studying skeletal remains enables us to see changes that have occurred gradually ​ Most of the study of human ancestry is based on the story of primitive humans ​ In plants and animals, we see homologous structures that have been adapted for different purposes 2.​ Embryology - evidence of common ancestry can also be seen in embryos ​ Embryos are very similar - it is difficult to distinguish birds, fish, reptiles in embryonic stages 3.​ Biochem evidence - we show the same genes ​ Share 98% of DNA with chimps Natural selection - some individuals are more likely to contribute their genes to the next generation due to advantageous traits 1.​ Predation - favouring traits that help individuals avoid being eaten like camouflage, speed, toxicity 2.​ Access to food - determines how well organisms can survive and reproduce 3.​ Climate - factors such as temperature, precipitation and seasonal changes favour traits that are easily adaptable Example : coral snake that looks like most poisonous snake keep predators from eating Population shifts Stabilizing selection - acts against individuals with traits that deviate from average ​ Favours average traits ​ Averages our population ​ E.g lizard tail that falls off - want it to be medium Directional selection - favours individuals with an extreme form of a trait ​ Causes the population to shift in one direction ​ E.g anteater tongue Disruptive selection - acts against average forms of a trait ​ Favors extreme ​ Causes population to split ​ E.g limpet colouration Nonrandom mating ​ Because organisms mate nonrandomly, certain traits may be amplified whereas others decrease in frequency ​ Organisms can only mate with others they are geographically near ​ Results in certain degree of relatedness ​ Organisms engage in mate selection Genetic drift ​ Changes in allele frequencies in a population due to chance events * losing allele = decreasing variation Bottleneck effect : random events or natural disaster destroys most of population ​ Few that survive and reproduce may not be representative of original population Founder effect : a few individuals colonize a new area ​ Small gene pool may lead to different genetic makeup from original population Isolating mechanisms Geographical isolation - physical separation of organisms which causes … ​ Allopatric speciation - new species form when populations are apart from one another ​ Stops gene flow between subpopulations Reproductive isolation - barriers that prevent successful breeding between population groups in one area this causes … ​ Sympatric speciation - new species forming in the same geographical area  Prezygotic Postzygotic ​ Barriers that present before fertilization ​ Barriers that present after fertilization ​ Incompatible behavior (e.g mating calls) ​ Zygote may not fully develop ​ Incompatible anatomy ​ Offspring are sterile ​ Prezygotic is more efficient Types of pre and post zygotic Pre : ​ Temporal isolation - a barrier that prevents interbreeding due to different times of mating ​ Mechanical isolation - different species → different parts don't always fit ​ Behavioural isolation - different species use different courtship and mating methods ​ Gametic isolation - gametes may not be able to recognize one another Post : ​ Zygote mortality - they can’t mate, baby never comes out or comes out dead ​ Hybrid - dont survive for very long ​ Infertility - can't make babies ever Convergent Evolution - no common ancestor but look the same is because same pressures causing same adaptation structures are analogous ex talismanen bobcat and tiger cat. Divergent evolution - common ancestor different adaptations and different pressure structures are called homologous. E.x wolf = dog and fox Adaptive radiation - (Very specific example darwin finch birds) b/c they developed different beaks b/c of different pressures. Definition - the relatively rapid evolution of a single species into many new species, filling a variety of formerly empty ecological niches Unit 3: Animal Systems Physiology Respiratory System ​ Alveoli - The airways end in clusters of tiny sacs called alveoli ​ Pleural membrane - a thin layer of connective tissue that covers the outer surface of the lungs and lines the thoracic cavity ​ External intercostal muscle a muscle that raises the rib cage, decreasing pressure inside the chest cavity ​ Internal intercostal muscle a muscle that pulls the rib cage downward, increasing pressure inside the chest cavity ​ Diaphragm a large sheet of muscle located beneath the lungs that is the primary muscle in breathing Path that air takes Three terms: Gas exchange, ventilation and respiration Gas exchange - oxygen goes in co2 goes out (brain, muscles) Ventilation - Breathing inhale/exhale the process in more complex organisms that ensures a flow of oxygen-rich air to the lungs Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) - the max amount of air that can be inhaled after taking a normal breath. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)- the max amount of air that can be exhaled after taking a normal breath. Respiration - Opposite to photosynthesis, occurs in mitochondria break down sugar and oxygen to make CO2 water and atp High altitude ​ At high elevation air pressures is lower and air is “thinner” -​ Less air in total (less oxygen available for respiration) - body cannot extract enough oxygen from air - sickness ​ First response to hypoxia -> increases breathing rate -> helps bring more oxygen to alveoli ​ Extra blood cells can allow for exceptional physical endurance (energy boost) ​ EPO - erythropoietin is the hormone that makes more red blood cells released from the kidney  ​ Why do athletes train at high altitude ? - Some endurance athletes, such as long-distance runners and triathletes, train at high altitudes to increase the number of red blood cells. Training at a high altitude for just a few weeks can increase the red blood cell count. The additional red blood cells will remain active for several weeks afterward, giving athletes an extra reservoir of oxygen. Vital Capacity - the max amount of air a person can exhale after taking the deepest possible breath important to measure lung function. Vital capacity = IRV + Tidal Wave + ERV Tidal Volume (TV_ - the amount of air that is inhaled or exhaled in a situation. Circulatory System Path of heart 1.​ Superior Vena Cava / inferior Vena cava 2.​ Right Atrium 3.​ Tricuspid valve (vales regulate blood flow) (Av valve) 4.​ Right ventricle 5.​ Semilunar valve 6.​ Pulmonary artery 7.​ Pulmonary vein 8.​ Left atrium (atria plural) 9.​ Bicusid valve / mitra; valve/ av valve 10.​ Left ventricle 11.​ Arotic semi lunar valve 12.​ Aorta Three main types of blood vessels -​ Arteries, veins, capillaries, arteriole (small artery), the venule (small vein) Arteries Veins ​ Move away from heart ​ Move “via” toward heart ​ Normally carry oxygenated blood ​ Normally carry deoxygenated blood ​ Are elastic (snapback to help pumping) ​ Are ridgid (blood goes up stay in place) ​ Have a high pressure (blood squirts) ​ Have low pressure ​ Smooth interior prevents hardening ​ Contain valves (so blood can’t flow backwards. ​ Capillaries ​ Smallest of the blood vessels that connect arteries and veins ​ In your lungs they facilitate diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide in lungs, arms, legs and head for respiration ​ In digestive tract they absorb nutrients, vitamins, minerals and water ​ In the liver/kidney toxins are removed/damaged red blood cells are filtered. The composition of Blood Red blood cells ​ Also called erythrocytes ​ Make up 44% of total blood volume ​ Mature cells have no nucleus and is dish shaped ​ Specialized for oxygen transport. Transports 98% of dissolved oxygen that enters the blood (the other 2% transported by plasma) ​ Carries 280 million molecules of hemoglobin, an iron containing molecule that binds with oxygen. ​ Manufactured in bone marrow ​ Have life span of 120 days and are destroyed chiefly in the liver and spleen. White blood cells ​ Also called leukocytes ​ Make up 1% of total blood volume. But increase when your body is fighting an infection. ​ Cells have nuclei and appear colourless ​ Contain two of the most important disease-fighting cells types : macrophages and lymphocytes Platelets ​ Make up third major component of blood ​ Are not actually cells rather fragments of cells from bone marrow ​ Involved in blood clotting Plasma ​ Make up 55% of blood volume ​ Fluid portion of the blood in which the blood cells are suspended ​ Contain dissolved protein companies of fibrinogen, serum albumin and serum globulin ​ Plays role in the transport of carbon dioxide in the blood ​ Coconut juice has the same electrolyte concentration as blood Diseases Heart murmur - is a sound that doesn't belong, sound when something is wrong Arteriosclerosis - hardening of artery Aneurysm - bursting of blood vessel Stroke - cuts off blood flow Heart attack - cuts off blood flow to heart Left side of the heart is bigger because it has to pump to the whole body. Blood Types Universal Donor O - They are universal donors b/c can donate to everyone have no antibodies against it and no antigens Universal recipient (AB) - Can receive from anyone who makes no antibodies against any antigens. Forensic Scientist testing) Type A should clot when type B (bc A has antibodies to fight B) Type B should clot when type A (bc B has antibodies to fight A) Type AB should clot both A and B (bc AB has antibodies to fight none) Type O clot none (bc it fights A and B) RH Factor if clot positive no clot negative Lymphatic and Immune System The lymphatic system has two major roles: one in the circulatory system and the other in the immune system. As part of the circulatory system, the lymphatic system helps ensure that the blood volume is maintained. As part of the immune system, the lymphatic system filters bacteria and other components from the blood. lymph tissue fluid collected in lymph vessels and returned to the blood Immune system Olivia (Drunk person) - The antigen is the virus/bacteria Treasure the bouncer- white blood cell/ the macrophage (phagocyte) engulfs the antigen Clothes on Treasure = Expresses the antigen on the surface of the cell, so he looks like the antigen, macrophages release histamine which causes swelling and heating up, it is calling for assistance Bouncer Zack- helper T cells release interleukin that stimulate the production of white blood cells (leukocytes) Emma (waitress)- the B Cell- B cells make antibodies which bind to the antigen just like a net. Ava (mean waitress) - killer T Cell- use enzymes to poke holes into the antigen membrane Gaby(Photographer) Memory B cell- can keep antibodies for a long period of time in case the antigen returns Dead white blood cells become pus = Olivia and Treasure. The Heart Cycle Blood Pressure Cardiac Output - stroke volume x heart rate Stroke Volume - the amount of blood hearts pump out at one beat (left ventricle) Cardiac Output - the amount of blood the heart pumps out in a minute. Hypotension - when blood pressure drops to low Hypertension - blood pressure is chronically elevated. Diastole - relaxation phase (lowest). the period of the cardiac cycle when the ventricles are relaxed; blood fills the ventricles Systole - Contraction phase (highest) the period of the cardiac cycle when the ventricles contract; blood is ejected from the ventricles Lance Armstrong has the same output but his heat rate is much slower b/c he pumps twice as much blood in one pump. Heart Sound → “LUB - DUB” Lub - tricuspid + bicuspid valves shut - semilunar valves open Dub - Semilunar valves close - tricuspid + bicuspid valves open Arteries and arterioles are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Arteries have a layer of smooth muscle in their walls. Vasoconstriction reduces the diameter of arteries and decreases blood flow. Vasodilation relaxes the muscle and increases blood ECG Electrocardiogram (ECG) - it records electrical activity produced by the heart P: The pacemakers (SA node) is firing and the atria contracts (Atrial depolarization) QRS: the av node is firing and the ventricles are contracting (ventricular depolarization) T: ventricular repolarization the changes return back to normal so it can fire again Tachycardia - faster heart rate Bradycardia - slower heart rate Arythma - an irregular rhythm sinoatrial (SA) node - a mass of muscle and nerve cells in the right atrium; initiates the heartbeat and maintains the regular rhythm atrioventricular (AV) node - a mass of conducting cells that transmits the signals from the SA node to the muscles of the ventricle Purkinje fibre - a conducting fibre that carries the electrical signals from the AV node to the muscle cells of the ventricles Digestive System Path food takes ​ Mouth ​ Esophagus ​ Stomach ​ Small Intestine ​ Large intestine Mouth Teeth bite off and chew food into a soft pulp that is easy to swallow. Chewing mixes the food with water salvia, from 6 salivary glands around the mouth and face, to make it moist and slippery. Saliva moistens the food making it easier to chew and swallow. Food at this stage of digestion during swallowing is called a food bolus. Esophagus The esophagus, or gullet, is a muscular tube. It takes food from the throat and pushes it down through the neck, and into the stomach. It moves food by waves of muscle contraction called peristalsis. Small intestines ​ This part of the tract is narrow, but very long - about 20 feet. Here more enzymes continue the chemical attack on the food. Finally the nutrients are small enough to pass through the lining of the small intestine, and into the blood. They are carried away to the liver and other body parts to be processed, stored and distributed. ​ Small intestine - Duodenum, jejunum and ileum duodenum (2+10=12 finger widths in length) ​ Receives bile from the liver, pancreatic juice from pancreas and itself produces many digestive enzymes. ​ The small intestine consists of minute fingerlike projections called villi, which increase the surface area of the small intestines. Nutrients are absorbed across and into the bloodstream. (via capillaries) as chyme travels down the small intestine. ​ Mucus : protect the wall of the duodenum from the acid food passed from the stomach. ​ Amylase : converts starch to maltose ​ Muscles in the wall of the small intestine push the food along by peristalsis. Large intestine ​ Useful substances in the leftover such as spare water and body minerals are absorbed through the walls of the large intestine, back into the blood. The remains are formed into brown, semi - solid feces ready to be removed from the body. ​ The large intestine has two parts : the colon and the rectum (the final 15cm) The large intestine is home to bacteria that live on unabsorbed nutrients, these bacteria do not harm us, and in fact help us by synthesising important vitamins. ​ Waste is transported to the rectm expansion of this chamber induces the urge to defecate. ​ Large intestine is for absorbing water, storing feces, and creating vitamins. How digestion works The digestive system must accomplish the following tasks : ​ Ingestion ​ Mechanical digestion/breakdown ​ Chemical breakdown ​ Absorption ​ Elimination Accessory organs Pancreas ​ The pancreas, like the stomach, makes powerful digestive juices called enzymes which help to digest food further as it enters the small intestines. It is involved in blood sugar regulation, as i secretes the hormone insulin, which is involved in the breakdown of sugars * fats are what makes us full bc fats contain lots of energy causing digestive system to stay down Gallbladder ​ This small baglike part is tucked under the liver. It stores a fluid called bile, which is made in the liver. As food from a meal arrives in the small intestine, bile flows from the gallbladder along the bile duct into the intestine. It helps to digest fatty foods and also contains wastes for removal. Liver ​ The liver secretes a substance called bile which is essential for digestion. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine via a common bile duct. Chemical that are released Gastrin ​ Food reaching the stomach, Stimulates the release of the hormone gastrin ​ Released by the stomach lining ​ It is released into the blood and when it reaches the stomach - HCL is released Secretin ​ Acidic chyme entering the duodenum ​ Stimulates the cells of the duodenum to release hormones : secretin ​ Secretin stimulates the secretion of sodium bicarbonate from the pancreas Cholecystokinin (C.C.K) ​ stimulates the gallbladder to contract to release bile into the small intestine ​ Also stimulates the release of pancreatic enzymes Macromolecules Carbohydrates - Quick energy easily converted to Atp in the mitochondria using cellular respiration. Main source of energy, provides the energy needed for cellular processes and physical activity. create monosaccharides - which are simple sugars (1 sugar) examples glucose, fructose, galactose Disaccharides - (2 sugars) examples glucose + glucose = maltose Glucose + fructose = sucrose Glucose + galactose = lactose In humans, carbohydrates are stored in the liver and muscle tissues in the form of glycogen. If the maximum amount of glycogen is stored, excess carbohydrates can be converted to lipids and stored as body fat. Proteins - integral parts of cellular membrane, they are used to build tissue (ex muscles) Some proteins serve as hormones chemical messengers released by cells in the body that influence cellular activity in another part of the body. Monomers of protein are called amino acids. There are 20 proteins. The human body makes 12 amino acids and the 8 we must obtain from food. Ex tryptophan Proteins are amino acids bonding to an R Group (one of the 20 amino acids) than with a carboxyl group. Mechanical digestion of protein begins in the mouth and continues in the stomach and small intestine. Lipids - Store energy, storing vitamins, building blocks, and serve as insulation. Fats and oils are two familiar types of lipids. Fats and oils are made up of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule, which make up a triglyceride. Triglycerides can be either saturated or unsaturated, depending on the structure of their fatty acid chains. Lipids can make fatty acids which are long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms Both the mouth and stomach play a role in lipid digestion, but the majority of lipid digestion occurs in the small intestine. Egg Lab ​ Pancreatin works best in bases, the PH is very strong.  ​ Pancreatin + high initial Ph, high Ph allows pancreatin to work because it has a good Ph for a base that allows proteins/ lipids to become amino acids. ​ Ph went down since amino acid was created Unit 4: Diversity of Living Things dichotomous key a series of branching, two-part statements used to identify organisms (or objects) Hierarchy of taka Domain, Kingdom, Phyolem, Class Order, Family genus Species. “Dear King Phlip, came over for good soup” The six kingdoms When Linnaeus developed his systems of classification, there were only 2 kingdoms, plants and animals. But the microscope led to the discovery of new organisms and the identification of cell differences. The six kingdoms are: plants, animals, fungi, archaebacteria, eubacteria, protists Plants -​ Contains flowering plants, mosses and ferns -​ Plants are all multicellular and consist of complex cells -​ Plants are autotrophs and make their own food (photosynthetic) -​ The plant kingdom is the second second-largest kingdom -​ Plants feed almost all heterotrophs Animals -​ Largest kingdom -​ All animals consist of complex cells -​ They are heterotrophs -​ Most diverse environments in the world Archaebacteria -​ Unicellular (one cell) -​ Found in extreme environments like hot boiling water and thermal vents -​ Under conditions with no oxygen or highly acidic environments Eubacteria -​ Complex and single-celled -​ Most bacteria are in the eubacteria kingdom -​ Found everywhere and most familiar -​ The chemical makeup is different -​ Moist eubacteria are helpful Fungi -​ Mushrooms, mould, and mildew are all examples of organisms found in fungi -​ Most fungi are multicellular -​ Fungi cannot make their own food -​ Most obtain their food from parts of plants that are decaying in the soil Protist -​ Slime moulds and algae are protists  -​ Members are so different from one another -​ Protists include all microscopic organisms that are not bacteria, not animals, not plants, and not fungi -​ Most protists are unicellular -​ Unlike bacteria, protists are complex cells Niche Autotrophic - make own food from raw material (some bacteria only) Photosynthetic - carry out the process of photosynthesis (plant) Chemosynthetic - obtain energy for making food from the chemicals in the environment Heterotrophic bacteria - cannot make their own food and hence obtain food from an outside source Symbiotic - live on or in other living things Saprophytic - live off dead organic matter or wastes Parasitic - causing human diseases or hurting you (opposite of symbiotic) Presence of nuclear membrane In prokaryotes, the DNA (chromosome) is in contact with the cellular cytoplasm and is not in a housed membrane-bound nucleus. In eukaryotes, however, the DNA takes the form of compact chromosomes separated from the rest of the cell by a nuclear membrane (also called a nuclear envelope). Prokaryotic cells (bacteria) lack a nuclear envelope; eukaryotic cells have a nucleus in which the genetic material is separated from the cytoplasm. Cell Wall presence and composition Niche Prok / Euk Cell Wall Cell Wall Comp Plants Auto Euk yes cellulose Animals Hetro Euk no no Fungi Hetro Euk yes chitin Protist Auto / Hetero Euk Yes/no cellulose Archaebacteria Hetro Pro yes polysaccharides Eubacteria Hetro Pro yes peptidoglycan Archaea and Eubacteria Archaea ​ No peptidoglycan ​ Extreme environment ​ Rna Polymerase similar to eukaryotic Shared ​ Both single-celled ​ Both prokaryotic ​ Binary fission for reproduction of circular DNA Eubacteria ​ The cell wall is made of peptidoglycan diverse environment Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Prokaryotes ​ No nucleus ​ No membrane bound organelles ​ Circular DNA ​ Divide by binary fission ​ Unicellular Shared ​ Both have DNA ​ Both have ribosomes ​ Plasma membrane Eukaryotes ​ Have nucleus membrane-bound organelles ​ Linear chromosomes ​ Divide by mitosis/meiosis ​ Unicellular or multiple cellular Draw and name the various shapes of bacteria Shape Circle Rod Spiral Name Coccus Bacillus Spirillum Example Meningitis Botulism (botox) Syphilis  Shape Two linked Many linked (straight) Clusteed (grapes) Prefix name Di, diplo, bacillus Strepto, streptococcus Staphylo, staphylococcus Example Pneumonia Strep throat Boils Draw a general bacterium with labeled parts Plasmid - a small loop of DNA often found in prokaryotic cells; usually contains a small number of genes Capsule - an outer layer on some bacteria; provides some protection for the cell Flagellum helps bacteria move Plasma membrane controls entry and exit of material Bacteria Can Reproduce Binary fusion - the division of one parent cell into two genetically identical daughter cells; a form of asexual reproduction. Conjugation is a form of sexual reproduction in which two cells join to exchange genetic information. Type of reproduction in which genetic material is transferred from one bacterium to another Transformation - a process in which a bacterial cell takes in and uses pieces of DNA from its environment Transduction - bacteria have sex viruses. A method of sexual reproduction in which viruses carry bacteria DNA fragments between monera cells. Genetic Engineering - means by which E.coli is used to produce insulin and growth hormone. Genetic Engineering of Bacterium Steps 1.​ A plasmid is removed from a bacteria 2.​ Plasmid is digested by restriction enzyme, sticky ends made 3.​ Foreign DNA (i.e insulin) and antibiotic resistance are made to contain sticky ends as the plasmid 4.​ Plasmid is inserted into bacteria 5.​ Bacteria grows, and reproduce on a medium inoculated with antibiotics 6.​ Only bacteria growing on medium will have antibiotics resistance gene will produce anything it DNA codes Genetic engineering - Since bacteria replicate quickly, it can be useful in genetic analysis. In transformation, DNA can be introduced into bacteria strains so that bacteria can replicate the DNA strand of interest. Anaerobic - bacteria that can leave without oxygen Decomposers - Bacteria that can break down complex molecules into simple, inorganic materials. Reverse Transcriptase - are the enzymes that code RNA and make DNA but they make mistakes in HIV Endospores/spores - Resistant resting cells of a bacterium allow for bacteria to live. Viruses a General Virus Function of Parts ​ Nucleic acid, which can be either DNA or RNA, encodes the genetic information to make virus copies. ​ A protective protein coat surrounds the nucleic acid, called a capsid. ​ An outer membranous layer, called an envelope, is made of lipids and protein, surrounds the capsid in some viruses Lysogene / Lytic Cycle In the lytic cycle, when assembly is complete, lysis occurs as the host cell ruptures, or bursts, releasing about 100 to 200 new viruses into the host cell’s surroundings. The host cell is then destroyed. This entire lytic cycle can take less than one hour. In the lysogenic cycle, the viral DNA can stay dormant, called lysogeny, for many years. The bacterium continues to grow and divide normally, but each time it divides ,it makes a copy of the virus DNA that was inserted within its own chromosome. Main difference between ​ The lytic outcome is many viral components are released ​ Lysogenic the virus can live within the host and does not become viral right away instead, it switches to the lytic cycle when triggered ​ The Lytic destroys host cell genome ​ Lysogenetics can reproduce within the host and integrate its viral DNA into bacterial DNA/host ​ Lytic replicates separately from the host ​ Lysogenic replicates when the host replicates Gene therapy a method of treating disease in which genes are introduced into cells to replace, supplement, or repair a defective gene Scientists can, therefore, use viruses to deliver drugs or genes to targeted cells. They place drugs inside virus capsules or replace the viral DNA with DNA they want to insert into a host cell.