Biology (11) Exam - PDF

Bio (11) Exam GENETICS What is the name and basic structure of a DNA molecule? DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid DNA is a single, long molecule that contains the genetic code of a living thing. The molecule’s shape is a double helix. If each DNA molecule was stretched, it would be 2-3 METRES...

Bio (11) Exam GENETICS What is the name and basic structure of a DNA molecule? DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid DNA is a single, long molecule that contains the genetic code of a living thing. The molecule’s shape is a double helix. If each DNA molecule was stretched, it would be 2-3 METRES long. Genetic Code: pattern telling the body to make certain proteins Proteins: structures that make things and do things in the body (different proteins= different person) Use an analogy to help explain how DNA is stored inside the nucleus of a cell. It is like a ball of yarn. 1)The DNA is a long ball of yarn that is folded tightly. 2)DNA wrapping around histones to make the nucleosome is like wrapping yarn around your hand. 3)Tightly packed yarn is like nucleosomes wrapped into Chromatin. 4)Gathering the packed yarn and securing them together to form a bundle is how chromatin condenses into a single chromosome. Explain the storage process (DNA nucleosome chromatin chromosome) Since DNA is very long, it is stored in the cell by being coiled and folded tightly inside the nucleus. A nucleosome is made when the DNA molecule is wrapped around proteins called histones. DNA wrapped around histones = Nucleosomes When Nucleosomes are densely folded over one another to be compact in size, a Chromatin is created. The chromatin continues to fold, layer over layer, until the entire DNA molecule is condensed into a single chromosome (1 DNA molecule = 1 chromosome strand). Identify and define the parts of a chromosome (gene, locus, allele, centromere) Gene - each band of a chromosome is a specific gene (instructions/information for cell) Locus - each gene is found in a specific locus (position) Allele - each gene has different forms called alleles Centromere - a region that helps during cell division Gene VS Allele: Gene is the trait EX: eye colour Allele is the type of gene EX: brown eyes, green eyes Describe the characteristics of homologous chromosomes Homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes (one maternal and one paternal) inside each nucleus that have the same length and gene sequence (gene sequence = same order) → Alleles could be the same or different EX: parent 1 has brown eyes but parent 2 has green eyes Define and examine a karyotype Karyotype - a complete set of chromosomes. Chromosomes are ordered into (23) pairs of equal length (homologous) from longest to shortest. The last pair is the sex chromosomes (differ between males and females) What is the number of human chromosomes and the significance of the 23rd pair? Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 from mom and 23 from dad) The 23rd pair of chromosomes: X chromosome has around 1400 genes (sex determination) Y chromosome has around 200 genes Two X Chromsomes = female (XX) One X and One Y = male (XY) What are the general features of X and Y chromosomes (length)? X chromosomes are longer and contain many more genes while Y chromosomes are much shorter and contain much less genes. What's the relationship between haploid and diploid cells? Diploid cells are somatic (body) cells that have two sets of chromosomes. Haploid cells (gametes) are cells with only a single set of chromosomes. Explain the function of gametes during the process of fertilization Gametes are reproductive cells in an organism. Gametes must have half the number of chromosomes as body cells. 2 types of gamete: Sperm: male gamete — Egg: female gamete Zygote is fertilized egg cell resulting from union of sperm and egg During fertilization, a sperm travels to an egg and they join to form a zygote that has a full set of chromosomes (half from mother and half from father) How do the number of chromosomes change between haploid and diploid? Diploid (2n) 2 sets of chromosomes. In humans, diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (2n= 46) Haploid (n) 1 set of chromosomes. In humans, haploid cells have 23 chromosomes (n = 23) Explain the complete process of spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Spermatogenesis: -Males start producing sperm at puberty -Sperm cells are male gametes that are haploid (n=23 in humans) made in the testes -Inside the testes, there are specialized cells called stem cells (2n = 46) -At puberty, hormones signal the stem cells to become sperm cells Oogenesis: -Females are born with egg cells that mature at puberty -Egg Cells are female gametes that are haploid (n=23 in humans) found in ovaries -At puberty, hormones signal one immature egg (2n=46) to become mature (n=23) -This happens once a month during ovulation Define the function and purpose of meiosis. Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes by half. Gametes get half the number of chromosomes by the process of meiosis. This is to produce egg and sperm cells for reproduction. Explain how genetic variation is increased by meiosis. Meiosis has built in mechanisms to share and change DNA to create more variation in the offspring. Define the function of mitosis (with examples). Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces two identical daughter cells. EX: it creates new skin cells to replace dead skin cells. Know that chromosome duplication forms 2 sister chromatids. Explain the complete stages of meiosis I and meiosis II (look at diagrams). Meiosis I: Prohase I: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, a copy is made of each chromosome and attached to the original, nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate Metaphase I: Homologous chromosomes line up at the equator (centre) of the cell. Crossing over/ synapsis happens. Completely unique DNA is created here. Anaphase I: Half the chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles of the cell. Telophase I: Cell begins to divide and nuclear membranes reform. Meiosis II: Prohase II: nuclear membrane goes away in both cells Metaphase II: line up in the middle Anaphase II: sister chromatids go to each pole of the cell Telophase II: they get put back in nuclear membranes and the cell seperates into 4 unique cells Explain synapsis/crossing over (means the same thing). Synapsis/crossing over is the exchange of genetic material when chromosomes line up. Explain the biology of identical twins and fraternal twins. Identical twins: After 1 mature egg is fertilized by a sperm cell, the zygote divides into 2 identical cells by mitosis (same DNA = identical twins). Offspring will both be male or both be female. Fraternal twins: After 2 mature eggs are released, each is fertilized by different sperm cells. 2 zygotes develop (different DNA = franternal twins). Offspring can be the same or different sex. Define non-disjunction. Incorrect separation of chromosomes during gamete production. There will be more OR less chromosomes in a gamete EX: Patau syndrome (Trisomy 13) chromosome 13 has 3 copies of DNA instead of 2 Explain how chromosomal errors occur in anaphase I and anaphase II (with diagrams). Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes don’t move apart into different daughter cells. The gametes produced will have extra or fewer chromosomes. Anaphase II: Sister chromatids don’t move apart into different daughter cells. Gametes produced will have extra or fewer chromosomes. Identify the 7 syndromes with their names and identify them with karyotypes. Trisomy 13 (Patau Syndrome) Extra chromosome (Male or Female affected) 47 Trisomy 18 (Edward Syndrome) Extra chromosome (Male or Female) 47 chromosomes Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome) Extra chromosome (Male or Female) 47 chromosomes XXY (Klinefelter Syndrome) Extra X chromosome (Male) 47 chromosomes XYY (Jacobs Syndrome) Extra Y chromosome (Male) 47 chromosomes XXX (Triple X Syndrome) Extra X chromosome (Female) 47 chromosomes XO (Turner Syndrome) Missing X chromosome (Female) 45 chromosomes Briefly describe the purpose of 3 genetic technologies (karyotype, genetic testing, IVF). Karyotype: check for chromosome abnormality Genetic Testing: check for gene mutation In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): immature eggs removed from ovaries and fertilized by sperm outside (in lab). Zygote is then implanted back into the body. What are Gregor Mendel’s Pea experiments? He conducted experiments with pea plants by growing them for specific traits 1.​ Seed shape 2.​ Seed colour 3.​ Pod shape 4.​ Pod colour 5.​ Stem height 6.​ Flower position 7.​ Flower colour He used pea plants because they were cheap, reproduced quickly, had many offspring and were easy to control fertilization. He discovered the appearance of parental genes in offspring as dominant vs recessive traits. What are dominant and recessive alleles? Genotypes and Phenotypes? Homozygous and Heterozygous? Dominant allele: Stronger type of gene (uppercase) Recessive allele: Weaker type of gene (lowercase) Genotype: Allele combination Phenotype: Physical traits of the genotype Homozygous: genotypes with same alleles → Homozygous dominant - Ex: BB →Homozygous recessive - Ex: bb Heterozygous: genotypes with different alleles Ex: Bb What is a hybrid cross? PRACTICE punnett squares (even for multiple generations). Hybrid cross is a technique that can determine the probability of of inteehiting certain genetic traits. Steps include: -​ Write LET statements -​ State genotypes of parent generation -​ Complete punnett square -​ Find out the genotype ratio and phenotype ratio of F1 generation Define and provide examples of Codmominance. Both alleles for a trait are fully expressed in a heterozygous genotype EX: animal hair/fur with multiple colours (White AND black cow hair) Flower petals with multiple colours (yellow AND red flower petals) Define and provide examples of Incomplete Dominance. Neither allele will be expressed fully in a heterozygous genotype because the recessive allele is not completely concealed by the dominant allele. An intermediate will result. EX: red flower x white flower → pink flower What are the allele rules for Punnett squares? With codominance AND incomplete dominance the allele rule is to use letter with uppercase superscript EX: Cw Define and provide examples of Dihybrid cross. Practice drawing punnett squares and genotype/phenotype ratios. Dihybrid cross is when two different traits are studied for inheritance probabilities at the same time. EX: Seed colour and seed shape Hair colour and hair type Explain and draw sex determining Punnett squares. Parent genotypes are XX (female chromosomes) and XY (male chromosomes). Punnett square would determine there is a 50% chance of having either gender. Explain and draw sex linked trait Punnett squares. Sex-linked trait is certain genes that are found on the X chromosomes EX: red-green colourblindness Explain and draw blood type determining Punnett sqaures. Red blood cells have antigen proteins attached to their surface. Each antigen is linked to a blood type. What are the general common codes for pedigree charts? Complete pedigree charts. EVOLUTION Define evolution. Evolution is when hereditary changes occur in specific characteristics of a species over a long period of time. (the process of change over a long time) Explain past, present and future looking approaches to evolution. Past: evidence of biodiversity in fossils Present: observing biodiversity changes in real time Future: predicting upcoming biodiversity changes What’s the difference between theory and law in science? A scientific THEORY is based on a hypothesis that explains why something happens in the world and it can be improved EX: atomic theory, theory of relativity A scientific LAW is based on a hypothesis that has been repeatedly tested and the results are the same EX: law of gravity, law of conservation of mass What’s Buffon’s observation and thought on earth’s age? Buffon made observations about similarities and differences of species in the natural world. He was the first to suggest that species may have changed over time. He hypothesized that Earth’s age may be older than 6000 years old. What’s Cuvier’s conclusion from rock strata and contributions to palentology and catastrophe’s? He developed the science of paleontology (study of ancient life through fossils) He looked at rock strata and noticed that the top layer fossils are similar to present day creatures and the lower layer fossils look more different (some may not even exist anymore). He hypothesized that past catastrophes destroyed the habitat of some species but not others. Anning was a fossil hunter, what was her discovery of plesiosaur? Fossils are preserved remains of a once-living creature. She discovered the first remains of a plesiosaur (aquatic reptile). Explain why Lyell disagreed with Cuvier. Lyell disagreed with Cuvier about the catastrophism theory. Since earth’s changes were slow over time, he hypothesized that similar slow changes in species populations occurred over time too. This is called uniformitarianism. Line of Descent and inheritance theories. Lamarck created a “line of descent” by arranging past species with current species by their similar and different features from older to more recent. He hypothesized that generations of the same species inherited genetic traits from their ancestors to allow for better survival and let go of traits that weren’t useful. How did Darwin incorporate Malthus’ ideas and what was his observation on finches? Darwin observed biodiversity he saw in animals and plants. He looked for a mechanism for change and incorporated the idea of survival of the fittest from Malthus. Wallace independently discovered evolution and his and Darwin's conclusion was jointly published. Observation on finches: one type of beak shape will be favoured on each island due to the type of food available. Over a long period of time a new species will evolve a new beak shape to help them survive the island’s habitat. (theory of evolution) What are the four mechanisms for evolution and how do they impact alleles? 1.​ Natural Selection 3. Gene Flow 2.​ Genetic Mutation 4. Genetic Drift These 4 methods change allele frequencies over a very long period of time. What are the four types of natural selection? 1.​ Stabilizing Selection 2.​ Directional Selection 3.​ Disruptive Selection 4.​ Sexual Selection Explain stabilizing selection. It’s the most common form of selection seen in nature. This selection favours the intermediate variation over the extreme variation. FOR: moderate traits AGAINST: both extremes EX: Short trees may not compete for sunlight Tall trees may have more wind damage Medium trees are perfect — stabilizing Explain directional selection. This selection favours a particular extreme variation of a trait in a population. FOR: one extreme trait AGAINST: the other extreme trait EX: Light coloured peppered moths are better camouflaged against birch Dark coloured peppered moths are better against sooty environment Industrial Evolution = the colour of moth population shifted from light to dark Explain disruptive selection. Selection favours the extreme trait variation over the intermediate variation (this can lead to 2 species) FOR: both extremes AGAINST: moderate traits EX: Small male salmon are better for “sneaking” opportunities to fertilize female fish eggs Large male salmon are better to fight for female fish eggs Explain sexual selection (non-random mating). Competition for non-random mating based on competition between males and choices made by females. EX: female mallard ducks strongly preferred colourful male mallard ducks over brown. How does Genetic mutation create new alleles? Genetic mutation: a random change in the DNA of an individual that creates a new allele for better adaptation EX: a finch gets a random mutation in its genes to have a bigger beak, helping it adapt to eat seeds on the island How does Gene flow allow new alleles to enter a population? Gene flow: migration of individuals to a new environment bringing their unique alleles for certain traits. EX: a bird with unique alleles will migrate to a new habitat and survive successfully to reproduce. Its unique alleles will be added to the gene pool in that habitat. → Creates more genetic variations and reduces differences between populations Explain Genetic Drift. It's a random population change that makes certain alleles pass down generations by chance. Explain the Bottleneck effect. Factors (disasters) that reduce population to a small number and then the population recovers and expands. EX: An ice age wiped out most of the population of cheetahs now there is 1% of diversity in cheetahs. Explain Founder effect. A few individuals start a new isolated population. What is the Theory of Evolution? Over a long period of time, organisms evolve over generations and a new species evolves new traits to help them survive. EX: a “founder” species of finch travelled to an island and over a long time: Alleles for different beak shapes will be inherited over generations ——This makes a new species. Use depth the population found to explain which fossils are newer and older. Fossils found in younger layers of rock (closer to the surface) more closely resemble living species. The farther the fossils are in the layers of rock, the older they are (they appear in chronological order). Explain what transition fossils prove. Transition fossils show a in-between stage from one group of organism to another (how they’re linked) Transition fossils were able to show modern humans and their evolutionary process, dating all the way back to 4 million years ago and the organisms found from then to now. Explain how vestigial structures suggest evolution. Vestigial structures are structures that are a reduced version of an ancestral structure. Since vesitigial strcutures aren’t a disadvantage, there is no reason for it to be selected out. This allows us to link modern animals to ancestors because it shows the ancestor had that trait. Use biogeography to explain why certain animals are more similar than others that are in a similar climate. Biogeography is how animals geographically live close to each other but in different types of environments are more likely to be closely related than animals far from each other but similar environments. EX: environment is similar in African and Australian deserts, but they have VERY different species. Brazil and Africa have fossils of the same species because they used to be geographically closer (pangea). EX 2: New Zealand and Hawaii are geographically isolated, so each has unique species due to evolving in isolation. Explain how homologous structures suggest evolution. Homologus structures mean “same” structures. Although very different mammals have different functions and shapes, their limbs are made of the same bones but arranged in different ways. Quick notes: analogous structure = same function different structure/origin EX: bat wing, bird wing, insect wing Explain how embryology suggests evolution. Embryology is the sudy of early pre-life development of an organism. Fish, reptiles, birds and humans all look very similar before they are born (gill slits and tails in the embryo) but they are born and grow up looking very different. How do DNA studies suggest evolution? DNA carries genetic information that can show how closely related 2 organisms are. DNA sequence can show similarities between different species (the more similar the DNA, the more closely related the species are). Explain how Mitochrondial DNA evidence allows tracking along the maternal line and is different from the cell’s DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother, allowing tracing of a direct genetic line through the maternal line and is different from the cell’s DNA. Use DNA sequences to explain which species are more or less closely related to each other. DNA sequence similarity show which species are more closely related to each other than others DNA sequences of dogs show they are related to bears. DNA sequence of humans shows they are related to chimpanzees. What is the lice and guppie example of studying evolution? Guppie: John Endler did an experiment with Guppies to show how selection changed the traits of colourful guppies. Female Guppies favour colourful males to breed with. Predators also favor colorful males to eat (easy to see). Intro of more predators, and noted the males became duller in populations with more predators. → Overall found examples of sexual selection and selection in environmental changes. Lice: Lice evolved to cling to clothes 190,000 years ago, showing humans lost their body hair (as our closest relatives do) around that time. Compare and identify adaptation and variation. (Practice questions) Variation: any genetic differences between individuals in a population Adaptation: a genetic difference that helps an organism survive and reproduce in an environment. (structural, behavioural, physiological) Identify structural, behavioural and physiological adaptations. Structural: physical features EX: snake has a rattle at the end of its tail to frighten potential predators Behavioural: the way it behaves EX: fox snakes are harmless but vibrate their tail to mimic rattlesnakes Physiological: internal or cellular features EX: snakes use the temperature of their surrounding environment to maintain optimal body temperature Define microevolution and compare it with macro evolution. Microevolution: changes on a small scale (within 1 species) Macroevolution: changes on a large scale (more than 1 species) What is artificial selection? Artificial selection is the ability of humans to select certain traits that are more favourable. (EX: selective breeding of dogs, vegetables) PROS: new species are introduced quickly, desired traits CONS: inbreeding, loss of genetic diversity, more prone to sickness What are positive and negative consequences of artificial selection? Positive: monoculture (extensive planting on same landscape) -​ Easy to manage -​ Pesticides, fertilizers Positive 2: Norman Borlaug -​ Mass starvation -​ Created Dwarf Wheat to save billions of lives -​ Won Nobel Peace Prize for ending world hunger all over the world in 1970 Negative: -​ The artificial large crops with no variety could all be wiped out if not resistant to infection -​ Certain traits are chosen without regard to comfort or wellbeing of animal Overcoming Negative: GENE BANKS -​ Genetic information is preserved in houses to keep genetic diversity -​ Gene banks include modern and early ancestors of plants -​ Genetic combinations of traits help populations survive and reproduce Define speciation and species. Speciation: forming a new distinct species over the course of evolution Species: a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of producing viable offspring Compare phyletic gradulism and punctuated equilibrium. Phyletic gradulism: speciation happens slowly over time Punctuated equilibrium: speciation usually has no change with periods of sudden changes List 3 major steps in speciation. Step 1: Population is isolated Step 2: Separated populations’ traits diverge Step 3: Reproductive Isolation — when they meet again they can no longer reproduce What's the difference between allopatric and sympatric speciation? Allopatric (seperated): speciation separated by physical barrier so they reproduce in isolation Sympatric (within): speciation when new species arise within the same population Adaptive Radiation → form of allopatric speciation -​ One ancestor has many new species very rapidly -​ Common on islands (isolated) Explain divergent evolution. Species with a similar ancestral species diverge or become distinct. This occurs when populations change as they adapt to different environmental conditions. Explain convergent evolution. Similar traits arise because different species have independently adapted to similar environmental conditions, not because they share a common ancestor. EX: birds and bees both have wings (trait) yet they have different ancestors. Compare post-zygotic and prezygotic speciation. Prezygotic speciation: mechanisms that prevent fertilization Postzygotic speciation: mechanisms that prevent hybrid offspring from reproducing Explain all 10 mechanisms of reproductive isolation. Prezygotic Mechanisms: 1.​ Geographical isolation: species live in seperate or different habitats 2.​ Habitat isolation: same geographic area, different habitats (EX: water and land)  3.​ Temporal (time) isolation: reproductive cycle for flowering or mating occur at different times (EX: day and night) 4.​ Behavioural isolation: distinct mating rituals not recognized by another species 5.​ Mechanical isolation: structural differences in reproductive organs 6.​ Gametic isolation: gametes (sperm and eggs) must be compatible Postzygotic Mechanisms: 7.​ Zygotic mortality: zygote (fertilized cell) doesn’t develop 8.​ Hybrid inviability: hybrid is unhealthy and dies early (EX: leopard and lion = leopon) 9.​ Hybrid infertility: offspring is strong/fit but infertile 10.​Hybrid breakdown: first generation hybrids are viable and fertile but as generations pass, offspring become weak and infertile DIVERSITY Define Taxonomy, Genus and Species. Taxonomy: the science of classifying species (grouping because they are similar) Genus: taxonomic group of a closely related species Species: a group of related organisms that produce viable offspring What did Carl Lineus do? Carl lineus created the modern taxonomical system Binomial Nomenclature. Binomial Nomenclature: a naming system where each organism has a genus and a species name First name = genus (capitalized) Second name = species (lowercase) What are the 8 different levels of taxa? There’s 8 taxa we use to classify life. A taxon is a level: Most general taxon: Domain (largest group) Most specific taxon: Species ( smallest group) What are the classes Aves, Mamalia and Insecta? Aves = Birds Mamalia = Mammals Insecta = Insects What are the 5 types of information we use to classify animals? 1.​ Structural Information: skeletal structure, leaf anatomy, gram positive 2.​ Behavioural Information: sounds, movements, social interactions 3.​ Cytological Information: prokaryotic/eukaryotic, chromosome number 4.​ Embryological Information: appearance of organisms in early stages of development 5.​ Physiological Information: biochemicals like DNA, RNA and proteins What is Phylogeny and Phylogenetic Trees? Phylogeny: science dealing with evolutionary relationships between species Phylogenetic Tree: a way of showing these evolutionary relationships → On a phylogenetic tree, species are grouped in clades → Clades are a taxonomic group that includes a single ancestor species and its descendants → Nodes on the tree represent an ancestor species What is structural diversity? Structural diversity is the biological diversity seen in the structural forms of living things. Internal cell structure (cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm) to body morphology (body shape, size and structure). What is the order that different kingdoms were added to the taxonomic structure? Originally only animals and plants were kingdoms. Protists were added in 1860s (kingdom: Protista) Bacteria came in the 1930s as its own kingdom Fungi was so different so it became its own kingdom in the 1960s Archaea was the last kingdom to be added in the 1990s What are the 3 domains of life? 1.​ Bacteria 2.​ Archaea 3.​ Eukarya What are the 5 main characteristics that define kingdoms? 1.​ Cell Type: Prokaryotic Cell - small, simple cell without membrane bound nucleus Eukaryotic Cell - larger, complex cell with membrane bound nucleus  2.​ Number of Cells: Unicellular - made of one cell Multicellular - made of more than one cell 3.​ Cell Wall Material: Peptidoglycan, Cellulose, Chitin, etc 4.​ Nutrition: Autotroph - obtains energy by making its own food (usually sunlight) Heterotroph - consumes other organisms as food to obtain energy 5.​ Reproduction: Asexual - organism makes a copy of itself, offspring genetically identical Sexual - 2 parent organisms produce offspring, offspring are hybrid of parents Compare the 6 kingdoms by their common traits. Bacteria: -​ Simple organism lacking nuclei -​ Prokaryotic -​ Heterotroph or autotroph -​ All reproduce sexually -​ Live everywhere -​ Cell wall made of peptidoglycan Archaea: -​ Prokaryotic -​ Heterotroph -​ Have cell wall (not made of peptidoglycan) -​ Lives in EXTREME environments (EX: lakes with high salt concentration, thermal vents on ocean floor) Protists: -​ Most single-celled organisms, some multicellular -​ Eukaryotic -​ Autotroph, Heterotroph or both -​ Reproduce sexually and asexually -​ Live in aquatic or moist habitats -​ No cell wall Fungi: -​ Mostly multicellular -​ Heterotroph -​ Reproduce sexually and asexually -​ Most are terrestrial -​ Cell wall made of chitin Plants: -​ Multicellular -​ Autotroph -​ Reproduce sexually and asexually -​ Most are terrestrial -​ Cell wall made of cellulose Animals: -​ Multicellular  -​ Eukaryotic -​ Heterotroph -​ Reproduce sexually -​ Live in terrestrial and aquatic habitats What are the 3 main methods for animal identification? 1)​ Smartphone apps 2) Dichotomous keys 3) Field guides Practice Dichotomous keys and try creating them Archaea and bacteria charts Domain Archaea Bacteria Cell Type Prokaryotic Prokaryotic Number of cells Unicellular Unicellular Nutrition Heterotrophs (Methanogenic) Heterotrophs Autotrophs Autotrophs (Photosynthetic) Cell Wall Not made of peptidoglycan Made of peptidoglycan -​ occasionally no cell wall Method of Reproduction Asexual → Binary Fission Asexual → Binary Fission Habitat Extremophile (extreme Mesophile (non-extreme environments) environment) What are the differences between Bacteria and Archaea? Nutrition: bacteria and archaea can be both autotrophic and heterotrophic Bacteria only: Photosynthesis -​ Used by some bacteria -​ Uses sun to convert CO2 into water and sugar -​ Produces oxygen -​ Cyanobacteria are best known as photosynthetic bacteria Archaea only: Methanogenesis -​ Unique to archaea -​ Produces methane (potent greenhouse gas) -​ Found in digestive tract of cattle Bacteria Habitat : mesophiles - live in moderate conditions Archaea Habitat: extremophiles - live in extreme conditions Thermophiles → heat lovers EX: hotspring Acidophiles → acid lovers EX: volcanic crater lake Halophiles → salt lovers EX: dead sea How is asexual reproduction done by bacteria and archaea? It is done by binary fission which is when a cell divides into 2 genetically identical cells. The parent cell replicates its DNA, then DNA then separates and the cells split into 2 identical daughter cells with one DNA in each. What are 3 bacteria that can harm human health? 1.​ Clostridium botulinum: a bacteria that can cause food poisoning in humans. 2.​ Streptococcus pyogenes: gram positive bacteria that causes strep throat. 3.​ Streptococcus mutans: gram positive bacteria that causes tooth decay. — No known archaea can cause illness in humans — What’s the structure of Prokaryotes? Cell wall: provides structural support and protection DNA: forms a ring and is a single chromosome Flagella: used for movement Plasmid: small loop of DNA containing different genes then the chromosomes Prokaryotic cell shape: 1.​ Cocci → Sphere shaped 2.​ Bacilli → Rod shaped 3.​ Spirilla → Spiral shaped Prefixes describing how they live: ​ Mono = Live in single cells ​ Diplo = Live in pairs ​ Strepto = Live in linear chains ​ Staphylo = Live in clusters What is Gram Staining? Gram Staining is a technique that helps classify and identify prokaryotes. Gram Positive: absorbs purple stain, has thick peptidoglycan layer Gram Negative: stains pink, has thin peptidoglycan layer → archaea is always Gram Negative (no peptidoglycan layer) What are the characteristics for Fungi? Domain Eukarya Cell Type Eukaryotic Number of cells Most are multicellular YEAST are unicellular Nutrition Heterotrophic → by absorption Cell Wall Made of chitin Method of Reproduction Asexual and/or Sexual What is the structure of Fungi? Hyphae: thread-like filament that makes up the basic structure inside fungus Mycelium: a complex, net-like mass made of branching hyphae Fruiting Body: the spore-producing reproductive structure in fungi How do Fungi get their nutrients? Fungi get their nutrients by absorbing organic material from their environment through the cell walls. They release digestive enzymes that break down complex molecules into simpler and are absorbed through the cell wall. 4 types of nutrition in Fungi: 1)​ Parasitic: absorbs nutrients from living inside of a host organism 2)​ Predatory: mycelia has specialized structure for trapping prey 3)​ Mutualistic: forms partnership with organisms, mycelia covers roots of plants to increase absorption of sugars for fungi 4)​ Saprobial: absorbs nutrients from dead or decaying matter How do Fungi reproduce? Asexual: fungi produce genetically identical spores EX: budding yeast Sexual: hyphae of plus fungi fuse with hyphae of minus fungi to produce spores that are genetic hybrids of each fungi What are the characteristics for animals? Domain Eukarya Cell Type Eukaryotic Number of cells Multicellular Nutrition Heterotrophs Cell Wall No cell wall (cell membrane) Method of Reproduction Sexual Additional Info -​ They have the ability to move in at least one stage of their life -​ They produce an embryo that undergoes stages of development What are the 4 characteristics to classify animals? 1.​ Invertebrates vs Vertebrates -​ Invertebrates: an animal that doesn’t have a backbone -​ Vertebrate: an animal with an internal skeleton and backbone 2.​ Symmetry -​ Radial Symmetry: body can be divided into many equal parts through a centre point -​ Bilateral Symmetry: body can be divided into 2 equal parts through a centre point 3.​ Segmentation: -​ Division of body in repetitive sections -​ Allows for more effective movement as each section can move independently 4.​ Movement -​ Nerve tissue and Muscle tissue allow for complex and fast movement -​ All animals can move at some point in development -​ Nervous system ranges from simple (nerve net) to complex (network of nerves, brain, spinal cord) What is important information about sponges? -​ They are invertebrates -​ They live in marine and freshwater environments  -​ Only animal with asymmetrical body -​ No tissues (nervous or muscle) -​ Feed by trapping food particles as water passes through their bodies What is important information about cnidarians? -​ Have muscle tissue and simple nervous system (nerve net) -​ Radial symmetry -​ 2 body forms that feed in different ways: Polyps → Attach to a surface and extend tentacles upward, waiting for prey (stationary). ​ ig. coral Medusas → Swim and capture prey by stinging it with tentacles. ​ ig. jellyfish What is important information about worms? -​ Bilateral symmetry -​ Has muscle tissue and simple nervous system -​ Developed brain-like concentration of cells and eyespot in head area -​ Earthworms (Phylum Annelida) What is important information about arthropods? Exoskeleton: protects the animal and provides points of attachment for muscle that move legs. ​ Segmented bodies Some groups of arthropods: ​ Chelicerates (spiders, scorpions) ○​ 2 body segments ​ Crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, shrimps) ○​ Multiple segments, sometimes fused ​ Insects (bees, butterflies, ants) ○​ 3 body segments What is Phylum Chordata? Phylum Chordata is vertebrate animals that all have Bilateral Symmetry 2 important features of all vertebrate animals: 1.​ Notochord: Rod-shaped structure used for the attachment of movement muscles. ​ Replaced by the spine 2.​ Nerve Cord: Tube-shaped cord present in embryo. ​ Becomes the brain and spinal cord What is important information about amphibians? -​ Class: Amphibia -​ The first vertebrates to begin living on land  -​ They need a wet environment to stay moist -​ Amphibians are ectotherms (absorb heat from their surroundings) Define Tetrapod. Vertebrate with 2 pairs of limbs; an amphibian, reptile, bird or mammal. What is important information about reptiles? -​ Class: Reptilia -​ Developed to live fully in terrestrial environments -​ Waterproof body that prevents dehydration -​ Reptiles are ectotherms (absorb heat from their surroundings) What is important information about birds? -​ Class: Aves -​ Fossil evidence suggest birds and dinosaurs are related -​ Birds are endotherms (generate their own body heat) -​ Have hollow bones and compact body to reduce body weight (good for flight) What is important information about mammals? -​ Class: mammalia -​ Body covered in hair -​ Mammary glands: glands that produce milk to feed the young -​ Mammals are endotherms (generate their own body heat) Mammals can be divided into 3 main groups: 1.​ Monotremes: Mammals that lay eggs -​ Only 2: Platypus and spiny anteater 2.​ Marsupials: Pouched mammals -​ They are born early and continue development in the mother's pouch -​ EX: kangaroos, koalas, opossum 3.​ Placentals: Have a placenta → grow young in their uterus -​ EX: bears, bats, whales, humans, etc What are the characteristics for plants? Domain Eukarya Cell Type Eukaryotic Number of cells All are Multicellular Nutrition All are Autotrophs  Some are also Heterotrophs Cell Wall Cellulose in all Method of Reproduction Some Asexual and some Sexual What are the 4 types of plants? 1.​ Non-Vascular EX: Mosses and mosslike -​ No vascular tissues -​ Transports nutrients and water with diffusion and osmosis -​ No roots -​ Reproduce asexually by sending out spores from stalks 2.​ Seedles Vascular EX: Ferns and their relatives -​ First plant life on land -​ Vascular tissue that allows them to grow tall -​ Reproduce asexually by sending out spores into the air that land in soil 3.​ Gymnosperms EX: Coniferous trees and large trees -​ Reproduce sexually using seeds -​ Male cones send thousands of pollen grains that find female cones 4.​ Angiosperms EX: Flowering plants and shedding (leaves) trees -​ Grow and develop seeds enclosed in fruit -​ Divided into 2 types: Monocots (one seed leaf) and Dicots (two seed leaves) -​ Use animals to directly transport seeds/pollen -​ Reproduce sexually What are the characteristics for protists? Domain Eukarya Cell Type Eukaryotic Number of cells Most are Unicellular Some are Multicellular Nutrition Autotrophs & Heterotrophs Cell Wall Cellulose in some -​ occasionally no cell wall Method of Reproduction Asexual and Sexual What are the differences in the 3 groups of protists? 1.​ Animal-like Protists (Protozaons) -​ They consume other organisms for food  -​ (Some species are parasites) -​ EX: Amoebas, ciliates, flagellates 2.​ Fungi-like Protists: -​ They absorb nutrients from living or dead organisms -​ (Some slime moulds consume other organisms. Some water moulds are parasites) 3.​ Plant-like Protists: -​ They make their own food by photosynthesis -​ EX: Euglenoids (plant & animal like characteristics, eyespot to find light, they swim) What is important information about Protozoans (animal-like protists)? -​ Flagellates: have one or more flagella that whip side to side to move. Some are free living, some are parasites and some live in mutualistic relationships. -​ Cilliates: Short, hair-like projections allow the cell to move. Some ciliates are free-living while one species of ciliate is a parasite in humans’ large intestine causing diarrhea. -​ Ameobas: change shape using their cytoskeleton to move and create different forms. They create pseudopods (‘false feet’) for locomotion. Some ameobas live and feed on the small intestine in humans and cause a serious illness. -​ Sporozoans: all parasites that live in and feed on human (+ other animal) blood. Asexual reproduction by mitosis and sexual reproduction by forming spores What is important information about slime and water moulds? Slime moulds: -​ Blob functions like amoeba -​ Engulfs food particles -​ Reproduces with spores Water moulds: -​ Live in water/moist places on decaying matter -​ Release digestive enzymes on host tissue and absorb nutrients ANIMAL SYSTEMS The Digestive System What is the structure, main function and examples of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids? Carbohydrates: → Structure - monosaccharides (one sugar): made of 3-7 carbon atoms  - disaccharides (double sugar): made of 2 monosaccharides - polysaccharides (many sugars): chains of linked monosaccharides → Function: provide quick energy for use by cells → EX: glucose, fructose, lactose, maltose, glycogen, starch Lipids (fats): → Structure - Glycerol attached to 1 or more fatty acid chains → Function: stores more energy than other molecules, cushions and insulates internal organs → EX: butter, lard, olive oil, sunflower oil Proteins: → Structure - long chains of amino acids joined by peptide bonds (=bonds holding amino acids together) → Function: build and repair muscles and cell membranes, act as enzymes, fight infections → EX: antibodies, enzymes, insulin Nucleic Acids: → Structure - Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) → Function: direct growth and development of all organisms → EX: DNA, RNA Explain the role of enzymes and how they help hydrolysis reactions. Carbs, lipids and proteins all need to be chemically broken down before the body can use them. The chemical breakdown is called hydrolysis (= chemical reaction where water breaks macromolecules into smaller molecules). Enzymes are proteins that speed up reactions such as hydrolysis. Define minerals and vitamins (provide examples). Minerals: inorganic substances that enable chemical reactions and help in tissue development, growth and immunity. EX: Calcium - helps form bones, clotting blood, etc. found in dairy Vitamins: organic substances that enable chemical reactions and help in tissue development, growth and immunity. EX: Vitamin A - helps vision, healthy skin and bones, found in fruits *READ AND ANSWER* the STSE article “The Dark Side of Canada’s Food Guide.” What happens in the 4 stages of the digestive system?  1)​ Ingestion: taking in or eating food 2)​ Digestion: breakdown of food by mechanical and chemical processes into molecules small enough for cells to absorb 3)​ Absorption: transportation of the products of digestion from the digestive system into the circulatory system 4)​ Egestion: removal of undigested solid waste matter from the body What happens in the two types of digestion (mechanical and chemical). Mechanical digestion: the physical act of breaking down food using teeth, beaks or similar structures AND by the contraction motions in the stomach. Chemical digestion: follows mechanical digestion and requires enzymes and water to make food particles small enough for cells to absorb. Explain the connection between the cecum with the size and type of digestive tract (of herbivores and carnivores). Herbivores usually have longer digestive tracts than carnivores due to the cecum. Cecum carries a large number of bacteria which helps in the enzyme breakdown of plant materials. Herbivores ingest more plants than carnivores so a large cecum suggests herbivores have more waste material that needs to be broken down (cellulose in plants). Define the 4 feeding mechanisms (provide examples). Filter feeders: aquatic organisms that use body structure like a filter basket to funnel water and gather food EX: tube sponge Fluid feeders: suck or lick nutrient rich fluid from plants or animals EX: butterfly Substrate feeders: live in or on their food source and eat their way through it EX: caterpillars Bulk feeders: ingest large pieces of food EX: humans Describe the structure and function of each organ in the digestive system. Mouth: Mechanical and chemical digestion starts in the mouth → Teeth (physical breakdown): Incisors and canines tear and cut food, molars grind and crush food → Enzyme called amylase (chemical breakdown) Saliva: amylase breaks down carbohydrates (polysaccharides) into smaller disaccharides and contains mucus which works as a protective lubricant to help us swallow → when food is ready to be swallowed as a moist ball of food its called bolus Swallowing Food: → tongue pushes food to the back of your mouth → food is then pushed into the pharynx and epiglottis covers entrance of trachea to prevent food entering the nasal passage Esophagus: a long, muscular tube that is stretched by food once swallowed and the esophagus moves it down to the stomach through peristalsis (=wave-like muscle contractions) Stomach: food enters stomach through circular piece of muscle called gastroesophageal sphincter → stomach muscle churns, physically breaking food down and mixes it with gastric juices → gastric juices produce glands in the stomach to help digest food → hydrochloric acid in gastric juice converts pepsinogen into pepsin which breaks down protein → stomach holds 2L of food → chyme is food mixed with gastric juices then exits through pyloric sphincter Small intestines: MOST DIGESTION HAPPENS HERE → digests carbohydrates, lipids and proteins → 3 sections include: -​ Duodenum: where most enzymes are added -​ Jejunum: digestion continues, most nutrients are absorbed -​ Ileum: more nutrients are absorbed → Villi and microvilli are finger-like projections that max surface area and absorb nutrients Large intestine: joined to small intestines through cecum -​ After nutrients are absorbed, remaining material moves to the large intestine -​ Large intestine absorbs water, ions and vitamins -​ Colon is largest part of large intestine -​ Rectum holds feces until its egested through the anus Accessory Organs: → Liver: produces bile that is sent to the gallbladder → Gallbladder: stores bile and releases it in the small intestine (duodenum) → Pancreas: produces most enzymes needed for chemical digestion Label the parts of the human digestive system. The Respiratory System What happens during gas exchange in lungs and tissues? Gas exchange: process of oxygen diffusing (= spreading) into the cells and carbon dioxide diffuses out. Humans and most other land mammals require a lot of oxygen so specialized organ systems (lungs) are required. Gas exchange occurs in 2 areas: (1) lungs and (2) tissues External Respiration: exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between lungs and blood → oxygen diffuses from the air into red blood cells → carbon dioxide diffuses from red blood cells to lungs where its exhaled from body → gas moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration Internal Respiration: exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between tissues and blood → oxygen diffuses from red blood cells to cells in tissues → carbon dioxide diffuses from tissues to red blood cells where its transported to lungs → gas moves from an area of high concentration (red blood cells) to an area of low concentration (tissues/cells) What happens during ventilation (inhalation and exhalation)? Ventilation is the process of moving the oxygen-rich air TO the lungs and carbon dioxide rich air AWAY from the lungs. (process based on air pressure in lungs) 2 structures responsible for ventilation: 1)​ Diaphragm 2)​ Intercostal muscles (rib muscles): external intercostal, internal intercostal Inhalation: diaphragm contracts which shortens and flattens the muscle and the external intercostal muscle contract, pulling the rib cage up and out. This increases volume in the thoracic cavity to decrease pressure and causes air to rush in. Exhalation: diaphragm relaxes which lengthens and raises the muscles and the internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling the rib cage down and in. This decreases volume and increases pressure in the thoracic cavity, pushing air out. Explain the 4 respiratory surfaces (provide examples). 2 requirements for respiratory surfaces: 1)​ They must be large enough for gas exchange to occur 2)​ They must be moist so gases can dissolve 4 respiratory surfaces: 1)​ Outer Skin: entire outer skin used for gas exchange, diffusion transports oxygen and CO2 in and out of the cells from the blood (they live in moist environments) EX: earthworm 2)​ Gills: extensions in the body that increase surface area, diffusion transports gases to blood and cells (they live in aquatic environments) EX: fish Singh Unit 4 Systems Slideshow 3)​ Tracheal System: internal system of branching respiratory tubes, they connect cells directly to the environment and blood is NOT required EX: insects 4)​ Lungs: provides more gas exchange, lungs contain sacs lined with a moist surface, blood transports gases to cells by diffusion EX: rabbits Describe the structure and function of each organ in the respiratory system. Nasal cavity: warms and moistens air from outside before it enters the lungs → prevents damage to the thin delicate tissue of your lungs → nasal cavity lined with cilia (hairs) and mucus to filter out and trap any airborne particles Pharynx: the membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth connecting them to the esophagus (passageway for air to enter larynx and food to enter the esophagus) Epiglottis: flap that acts as a switch between the larynx and esophagus → allows air to enter the trachea to the lungs and food to pass into the esophagus Larynx: voicebox that is made of cartilage and used for sound production in mammals Trachea: hollow tube that allows air to pass from the pharynx into the lungs → lined with mucus and cilia to protect the lungs from foreign matter → the trachea then branches into 2 Bronchi (bronchus singular) → bronchi then branch off into smaller tubes called Bronchioles → these tubes end in small sacs called Alveoli Alveoli: made of warm, moist and extremely thin membrane → allows for easy diffusion of gases across the membrane and into the blood → each alveolus is tiny and surrounded by a bed of even thinner capillaries (one cell wall thick) → large number of alveoli allow for maximum surface area for gas exchange Lungs: contained within the thoracic cavity and are protected by your rib cage, provides respiratory membrane, large surface area and supply of blood required for diffusion Label the parts of the human respiratory system. Respiratory Disorders: identify the symptoms, causes, diagnostic tools/treatments for all 6 disorders Pneumonia Description: inflammation and fluid build up in the alveoli, interfering with gas exchange Symptoms: chest pain, coughing, fatigue Causes: bacterial infection (streptococcus pneumoniae) and viral infection Treatment: antibiotics or antiviral medication, vaccine Bronchitis Description: inflammation, redness and extra mucus in bronchi → Chronic Bronchitis: infection, persistent cough, mucus build-up Symptoms: mucus cough, wheezing Causes: short term - bacteria chronic - regular exposure to dust, cigarette smoke and chemical compounds Treatment: short term - antibiotics chronic - incurable; treated with medication, exercise and quitting smoking Asthma Description: inflamed bronchi and bronchioles making airways narrow, reducing airflow Symptoms: wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath Causes: unknown, genetics or environmental (irritants: pollen, dust, smoke, cold, stress) Treatment: incurable - managed with inhaler and muscle reducing medication Emphysema Description: walls of alveoli lose their elasticity reducing respiratory surface for gas exchange Symptoms: mucus cough, shortness of breath, chest tightness, difficulty exhaling Causes: smoking, airborne irritants Treatment: incurable - treated with inhaler, low-flow oxygen tank Cystic Fibrosis Description: cells release thick, sticky mucus that clogs lungs causes difficulty breathing and trapped bacteria causes infections and lung tissue damage Symptoms: mucus cough, frequent lung infections Causes: autosomal recessive genetic condition Treatment: exploring gene therapy, medication to thin mucus, antibiotics for infections, lung transplants Lung Cancer Description: uncontrolled cell division leads to mass of cells called carcinoma break off and grow elsewhere Symptoms: persistent cough, difficulty breathing, chest pain, loss of appetite Causes: mainly smoking, also asbestos and air pollution Treatment: surgery (remove tumors), chemotherapy, radiation CT Scanning: special X ray producing clear, detailed images of blood vessels and tissues in chest Bronchoscopy: special endoscope to examine trachea and lungs and collect muscle or tissue to diagnose disorders (ex: asthma), remove tumors and repair damaged tissues The Circulatory System What are the functions of the circulatory system? A transportation system is necessary: -​ Transport gases, nutrient molecules and wastes -​ Regulate internal temperature and transport chemical substances around the body -​ Protect against blood loss from injury, against diseases and toxic substances. Explain the 2 types of circulatory systems (provide examples). 1)​ Open Circulatory System: fluid flows freely within the body and makes direct contact with organs and tissues (heart pumps  hemolymph through single tubular vessel into body. Fluid enters vessel through small pores called ostia) EX: grasshopper 2)​ Closed Circulatory System: blood kept physically contained within vessels and follows a continuous fixed path of circulation. A network of vessels keeps blood separate EX: earthworm, humans What are the components of blood (fluid and solid portions) (provide examples). Protein is responsible for giving animals different colours of blood Ex: humans have red others have colours like purple and blue. Fluid Portion: called plasma, is the liquid portion of blood consisting of water, dissolved gases, proteins, sugars, vitamins, minerals and waste products. → dissolves and transports substances, maintains fluid balance in cells and helps with blood clotting Solid Portion: called formed portion, it consists of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets that are formed in bone marrow. What are the structures and functions of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets? Red blood cells: they don’t have a nucleus and are 500-1000 for every white blood cell. They contain hemoglobin that allows them to transport oxygen in the blood and carry carbon dioxide to help in waste removal. White blood cells: help defend the body from disease and infection Platelets: membrane-bound pieces of cells that are vital for blood clotting. In an injury, platelets change shape, become sticky and form thromboplastin (protein). If calcium is present, fibrin (protein) is produced to form a net (clot) over the injury. What are the 2 functions of blood? 1)​ Transport materials through the body (chemicals and gases from and for the respiratory system and remove waste products of cellular processes) 2)​ Fight infections What is the structure and function of blood vessels? Arteries: carry oxygenated blood AWAY from the heart toward tissue, are flexible and elastic due to high pressure (except the pulmonary artery is deoxygenated) → they branch off into arterioles that open (vasodilate) or close (vasoconstrict) to control internal body temp Veins: carry deoxygenated blood INTO the heart, have one-way valves to keep blood moving forward Capillaries: exchange materials between blood and cells occurs, connects arteries to veins (one cell wall thick) Describe the structure and function of each organ in the circulatory system. Heart: made of cardiac muscle to contract and relax, has 4 chambers, oxygen rich and oxygen poor blood are separated Right Side of the Heart: → Receives deoxygenated blood from the body to the vena cava into the right atrium → Delivers deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the pulmonary arteries to the lungs Left Side of the heart: → Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium → Delivers oxygenated blood to the body from the left ventricle through the aorta Valves: control the flow of blood through the heart → Atrioventricular valves: let blood from the atria into the valves (tricuspid and bicuspid) → Semilunar valves: let blood flow through the ventricles into large arteries (pulmonary and aortic) Describe the flow of blood as it moves throughout the human body. Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through the vena cava from the body, moves into the right ventricle and is pushed into the pulmonary arteries in the lungs. After it receives oxygen, the blood travels back into the heart through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium to the left ventricle and out to the body’s tissues through the aorta. What is the conduction of the heart beat and the parts of ECG reading? Heartbeat: “Lubb dubb” sound caused by closing of heart valves (2 stages) 1)​ Systole: ventricles contract to push blood out of the heart → Lubb = closing of the atrioventricular, semilunar valves are open 2)​ Diastole: atria are relaxed, ventricles relax → Dubb = closing of semilunar valves, atrioventricular valves are open ECG Reading: used to measure the heart’s health Parts include: P-wave -​ Caused by the sinoatrial (SA) node firing and atrial contraction QRS complex -​ Cluster of three waves -​ Caused by atrioventricular (AV) node stimulating ventricles to contract and the atrioventricular valves closing T-wave -​ Caused by ventricles relaxing and semilunar valves closing Label the parts of the human heart. Circulatory Disorders: identify the symptoms, causes, diagnostic tools/treatments for all 4 disorders Atherosclerosis Description: artery walls thicken, lose elasticity and narrow – blood pressure increases Symptoms: chest pain, blood clots, shortness of breath, heart attack, heart failure Causes: plaque build up inside artery walls Treatment: angioplasty, coronary bypass, lifestyle changes, meds to reduce clotting Leukemia Description: cancer of white blood cells, too many immature leukocytes can’t fight infection Symptoms: crowd red blood cells causing fatigue and possibly death Causes: cancer (genetic/environmental factors) Treatment: chemotherapy, blood transfusions, bone marrow transplant Hemophilia Description: inherited disorder causing uncontrolled bleeding, clots don’t form Symptoms: excessive bleeding, frequent nose bleeds, many large bruises Causes: genetic (sex-linked) trait, not producing enough clotting proteins in blood Treatment: injection of blood clotting proteins, lifestyle changes to avoid injury Congenital Heart Defect Description: defects in the heart that have been present since birth, walls dividing heart chambers, in valves and structure of blood vessels  Causes: unknown, could be genetics or environment Treatment: surgery to repair defects Angiography: X ray used to check blood vessels (used to diagnose atherosclerosis) Cardiac Catheterization: type of angiography to take internal X rays of heart (used to diagnose congenital heart defects) PLANTS Review characteristics of plants chart What are the identifying traits of a plant cell? Eukaryotic → Nucleus + other membrane bound organelles Chloroplasts in leaf cells Centre vacuole: storage of water, nutrients and waste Compare vascular and non-vascular plants. Vascular: -​ Specialized vascular tissue (xylem and phleom) used to move food and water throughout plants -​ Contain roots and shoots (leaves and stems) -​ Can grow very tall -​ Ex: ferns conifers and trees Non-vascular: -​ No specialized vascular tissues -​ No true roots, leaves or stems (NO veins or tubes) -​ Low lying -​ EX: mosses, hornworts and liverworts What are the roles of the root and shoot system? Root System: anchors the plant and absorbs nutrients and water. This system is typically underground. Absorption occurs here. Shoot System: It’s the plant’s stem, leaves and buds. Contains vegetative and reproductive parts. Food production occurs here. What do Xylem and Phloem transport and what path do they take? Xylem: transports water and minerals from roots to shoots (from the ground up, it’s a one-way flow) Phloem: transports sugars and nutrients within the plants (sugars travel from leaves to stem, it’s a two-way flow) What is the general structure of vascular bundles? Leaf veins are vascular bundles made up of xylem and phloem. Xylem is on the upper-side of the leaf vein while phloem is on the underside. They are stacked and referred to as the “vascular bundle” Compare transpiration and evaporation. Transpiration: the movement of water from inside plants to the atmosphere. It occurs when water is carried through plants from roots to the upper side of leaves and is transformed into water water and released into the atmosphere. Evaporation: the movement of water as it changes from liquid to vapour form. EX: lake (liquid) evaporating in atmosphere (vapour). What’s the function of stomata and guard cells? How do they work? Stomata: tiny pores in the leaf that control exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide). They are mostly found on the bottom of the leaf. Guard Cells: open and close of the stomata through osmosis. When guard cells are full of water, they swell and expand to open the stomata. When they stink they cover the stomata to close it. Compare sexual and asexual reproduction in plants. Sexual reproduction: requires male and female parts. Offspring are genetically different from the parent. (NOTE: self-pollination is a form of sexual reproduction b/c gametes that have undergone meiosis produce a zygote) Asexual reproduction: does NOT require gametes. Offspring are genetically identical to the parent (clones). (EX: spore in seedless plants and vegetative budding in vascular plants). How do Tuber and Runner type reproduction work? In asexual plant reproduction, a new plant grows from a part of a single parent plant. EX: from the tubers (or roots) or the runners (side stems). Compare angiosperms and gymnosperms. Angiosperms: -​ Use seeds to reproduce sexually -​ Use female (pistil) and male (stamen) parts to reproduce -​ Produce flowers that contain male and female parts -​ Ovaries of a fertilized flower develop into a fruit where seeds are kept -​ Fruits protect the seeds and help disperse the seed Gymnosperms: -​ Use seeds to reproduce sexually -​ Do not have flowers or fruits -​ Seeds are developed in a cone-like structure -​ Cones have scales to protect the seeds and eventually deposit seeds when conditions are right Compare seeds and spores. Seeds: in flowering plants seeds are surrounded by an ovule, in non flowers/fruits seeds are found in scales Spores: are lightweight and disperse easily in the wind. Sori (sorus) are clusters of spores. What are the functions of stamen and pistil? (be able to identify) Stamen: male part of flower -​ includes anther and filament -​ Produces pollen (pollen produces sperm cells) -​ Sperm cells stick to sigma travel down the style to the ovary for fertilization to occur -​ This makes seeds Pistil: female part of flower — includes stigma, style and ovary Compare monocot and dicot flowers (be able to identify) Monocot: angiosperms with seeds that contain ONE embryonic leaf or cotyledon Dicot: angiosperms with seeds that contain TWO embryonic leaves or cotyledons Compare the structure and function of male and female pine-cones. Male cones are smaller and located toward the bottom of the tree. Female cones are larger and located at the top of the tree. This encourages pollen from male cones of other trees to blow in the wind and fertilize the female cones (rather than male pollen falling from the top and self fertilizing) Define tropism. Tropism is a plant's response to an environmental stimulus. What are the 5 plant hormones and what are their functions? 1. Gibberellins -​ Growth hormones that stimulate rapid increase in size. -​ Makes stems longer -​ Play a role in flowering, and fruit ripening. 2. Cytokinins: -​ Promote cell division in plants and prevent aging in leaves and fruits. 3. Auxins: -​ Lengthens the cells found in the tips of plants -​ Control many forms of tropism. 4. Ethylene: -​ A gas that promotes ripening of fruits -​ known as the “ripening” and “death” hormone. 5. Abscisic Acid: -​ Inhibits shoot and leaf growth -​ Closes stomata to prevent water loss. -​ Keeps seeds dormant Define thigmotropism and phototropism. —Both are environmental stimuli— Thigmotropism: a plant’s response to touch. EX: Plants growing in the direction of wind, climbing vines ravel around fence Phototropism: the tendency for plants to grow towards light (plant bends). It’s controlled by auxins What are the growth and limiting factors of plants? -​ Temperature -​ Humidity  -​ Nutrients ○​ Nitrogen is a nutrient required to make chlorophyll. ○​ Also needed to make amino acids and nucleic acids like DNA -​ Light -​ Carbon Dioxide -​ Water What is the role of agriculture in Canada’s economy? -​ 1 in 7 jobs in Canada are involved in the agricultural industry -​ Maple syrup and maple products are big contributions to canada’s gross income (600 million yearly) -​ Agriculture accounts for over 10% of Canada’s gross domestic income What are the “3 sisters” plants in Indigenous culture? Corn, beans and squash are the 3 sister plants in Indigenous culture that have been grown together for years -​ Corn acts as a vertical structure for beans to climb (thigmotropism) -​ Bean plants decay, providing nitrogen (nutrients) for corn and squash -​ Squash grows horizontally on the ground to protect corn and beans from dehydration, weeds and pests What’s the medical application of bark, needles, and the 4 plants? Indigenous people used plants and plant extracts as medicine for many years. They boiled bark and needles from coniferous hemlocks and pines to create tea that was high in Vitamin C. Plant Name Biochemical Medicinal Use Peppermint Menthol -​ Local anesthetic Species -​ Treat sore throats Opium poppy Morphine -​ Most effective pain reliever Deadly Atropine -​ To open patient's pupils during eye exams Nightshade Yams Species Diosgenin -​ Used in birth control pills