Absolute Monarchs: Spain, France, England & Russia - PDF

Absolute Monarchs Absolutism – all power rests with one person / top leader military rule / prisons and concentration camps government controls all aspects of society propaganda and education glorifies leader “duty” of citizens to serve the state extreme limits to personal freedom (spe...

Absolute Monarchs Absolutism – all power rests with one person / top leader military rule / prisons and concentration camps government controls all aspects of society propaganda and education glorifies leader “duty” of citizens to serve the state extreme limits to personal freedom (speech) examples: – Philip II – Elizabeth I of England – Louis XIV of France - suggested virtues are “duty”, “obedience”, “loyalty”, “order” and “discipline” European Monarchs First up: Spain  What do you mean you don’t speak Spanish? THE INSIDE STORY: Why did the king of Spain speak no Spanish? In 1516, a thin and sickly 16-year-old boy named Charles became king of Spain. In some ways, Charles would not seem to be a likely candidate for the Spanish throne. After all, he was born in Belgium, raised by Austrian relatives, and grew up speaking French. When Charles became king, his ignorance of the Spanish language made him a foreigner in the eyes of the Spanish. Charles proved to everyone that he could learn quickly, though. He mastered Spanish along with other languages. In fact, Charles is said to have spoken “Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to his horse.” He needed all those languages, because Charles became not only king of Spain but also Holy Roman Emperor. In that role, he ruled an empire that stretched across much of Europe.  The King Becomes Emperor In 1516 the teenaged Charles became King Charles I of Spain. Although he was inexperienced, Charles had at least one kingly trait. As a member of the ancient and powerful Hapsburg family, he was prepared to rule as an absolute monarch—a ruler whose power was not limited by having to consult with the nobles, common people, or their representatives. Moreover, absolute monarchs generally believed that they ruled by divine right. This concept held that the monarchs received their power from God and therefore must not be challenged. From about 1500 through the 1700s, absolute monarchs tried to impose their will across much of Europe and even to lands far beyond. In Spain, Charles struggled to keep the territories within his empire under control.  Charles V and the Empire When Charles became king of Spain, his territory also included the Low Countries of Belgium and the Netherlands, along with colonies in the Americas. He had inherited all these lands. Then in 1519 the throne of the Holy Roman Empire became vacant. The position was elective, so Charles borrowed money to buy the votes. He became Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V. As a result, his holdings expanded to parts of Italy, Austria, and various German states. The resulting empire was so vast that Charles liked to say the “sun never set” over it. Ru all the separate states was not an easy task. Charles faced enemies on all sides. Ottoman Turks, the French, and rebellious German princes all fought him. At the same time, Charles was fighting for religious control over Europe. As Holy Roman Emperor, Charles wanted Europe to be Roman Catholic. His power was closely connected to the power of the Catholic Church, so the growing Protestant movement threatened his influence. In 1521 Charles confronted Protestant leader Martin Luther directly, declaring him an outlaw. In spite of Charles’s efforts, Protestants gained influence, and rebellions against Catholic rulers spread.  Charles V and the Empire After years of devastating wars between Catholics and Protestants, Charles V had to sign the Peace of Augsburg. The agreement, signed in 1555, gave each German prince the right to decide whether his state would be Catholic or Protestant. Thus, Charles’s vision of a Catholic Europe never became reality. Moreover, constant warfare had brought him to the brink of bankruptcy. Charles V achieved more success in the Americas than he did in Europe. During his reign, Spanish explorers claimed much of the Americas for Spain. Among the explorers he supported were Hernán Cortés, who conquered the Aztec Empire, and Francisco de Coronado, who explored the American Southwest region. Within 20 years of those early explorations, silver and gold began to flow from the American colonies—especially those in Bolivia, Peru, and Mexico—bringing Spain fabulous wealth.  Dividing the Empire Charles V gave up his thrones in 1556, frustrated by his failures in Europe. He decided to divide his large empire between his brother and his son. His brother took over the old Hapsburg holdings in Austria. His son, who became Philip II, ruled the Netherlands, Spain, Sicily, and Spain’s colonies in the Americas. Charles V lived the rest of his life in a Spanish monastery, his dream of a unified empire unfulfilled.  Artistic Achievements Just as Spain exerted political power, it also influenced European culture. From about 1550 to 1650 Spain had a golden age, known as the Golden Century, of artistic achievement. Art: One of the most prominent painters was El Greco. Much of his work was religious and reflected Spain’s central role in the Counter-Reformation; his style is famous for elongated human figures. Another Spanish painter, Diego Velázquez, created masterpieces that portray people of all social classes with great dignity. Velázquez had the privilege of being the court painter. Literature: The Spanish golden age also produced fine writers, the greatest being Miguel de Cervantes. His most famous work, Don Quixote de la Mancha, is about a man who is caught between the medieval and modern worlds. Writers in Spain’s colonies also produced works of merit. A Mexican nun named Sister Juana Ines de la Cruz wrote poetry, prose, and plays. Church officials criticized Sister Juana for some of her ideas, for example, her belief that women had a right to education.  Artists and Writers El Greco and his Agony in the Garden Cervantes and Don Quixote Velazquez and the Surrender at Breda Sister Juana Ines de la Cruz  Spain under Philip II Spain reached the peak of its grandeur during the reign of Philip II. One reason for this prosperity was the steady stream of gold and silver that flowed from its American colonies. With this immense wealth, Spain’s power grew considerably. Eventually, though, American gold could not solve Spain’s problems.  Religion and Revolt Like his father, King Philip II was a devout Catholic and saw himself as a leader of the Counter-Reformation. A chance to spread Catholicism came when Philip married Queen Mary I of England, who was also Catholic. She died, though, before she could give birth to an heir who could have returned England to the Catholic faith. Philip also wanted to secure the position of Catholicism in his European territories. But his faith clashed with the Calvinist Protestantism that was spreading through the northern provinces of the Low Countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg). A bloody revolt began in the 1560s when the Dutch refused to declare allegiance to Philip. To punish them, he sent an army under the command of the Duke of Alba. Alba set up a court, known locally as the Court of Blood, that tortured and executed thousands of people suspected of being rebels. Such cruelties only made the situation worse, and rebellion broke out anew.  Spain and England Long before the Dutch revolt ended, it had deepened another rivalry. That conflict was between Spain and England. As fellow Protestants, the English had sent aid to the Dutch rebels. England’s assistance to the Dutch infuriated Philip, but he was also worried about English attacks on his ships. England’s Queen Elizabeth I was allowing her ship captains to attack Spanish treasure ships coming from America. These ship captains, known as the sea dogs, stole the gold and silver for England. Sir Francis Drake was one of the most infamous sea dogs. Drake even destroyed 30 ships in a Spanish harbor. King Philip II wanted to stop England from raiding his ships and to return England to the Catholic Church, from which it had broken in 1534. He decided to invade England. Philip ordered his navy to assemble a great fleet, the Spanish Armada. It totaled about 130 ships and 20,000 soldiers and sailors. The fleet, which was called invincible, or unbeatable, sailed into the English Channel in 1588. Queen Elizabeth I rallied her troops, and the English prepared for attack. The Spanish had packed the ships with soldiers for a land invasion. They had also planned to be joined by Spanish forces in the Netherlands. Instead, they faced a series of fierce naval battles that severely damaged their fleet. Then, the English set eight ships on fire and aimed them at the remaining ships of the Armada. In panic and disarray, the Spanish ships fled before the English fireships. As the damaged ships made their way home the long way around, several were wrecked. King Philip’s Armada was not invincible. The English Fire ships http://www.yout ube.com/watch ?v=OnOpglw5k h0  “Crossing the T” Naval maneuver that allowed your ships to be in a better position to fire Crossed your ships in a line in front of the enemy Allowed your ship’s guns to fire fully while your enemy could not fire effectively if at all  An Empire in Decline The defeat of the Armada was not the end for Spain, which recovered from the loss. But England remained Protestant, defiant, and undefeated. Spain’s real problems were internal. Philip’s government was so centralized that he insisted on approving every decision himself. In addition, because Philip trusted no one, the court was riddled by factions and suspicion. As a result, government action practically came to a standstill. Moreover, Philip spent the wealth from the Americas on constant warfare. It was never enough, though—he borrowed money often and went bankrupt four times. The flood of American gold and silver also drove up prices, leading to inflation. Nor did Spain develop industries, relying instead on its traditional agricultural economy. Therefore, the economy lagged behind that of other countries. Spain gradually declined as a major power. European Monarchs Next: France  Streets of Blood!?! Say What?? THE INSIDE STORY: Why did the streets of Paris run with blood? It was August 24, 1572, the Catholic feast day of Saint Bartholomew. Many Protestant nobles were in Paris for the wedding of Henry of Navarre, a Protestant nobleman, to Marguerite de Valois, a Catholic princess. The marriage was supposed to calm the hostilities between Catholics and Protestants that had been tearing France apart. But just two days before, Catherine de’ Medici, the queen of France and the bride’s mother, had ordered the murder of a prominent Protestant leader. The attempt failed, but then Catherine had another idea. While so many Protestants were in the city, she ordered their massacre. Just before dawn on August 24, the killing began, with a bloodbath as the result. In Paris alone, some 3,000 Protestants were killed in the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.  Religious War and Henry IV Soon after the Protestant Reformation began in Germany, it spread to France. By the 1560s, about one in ten French men and women was a Huguenot, or French Calvinist Protestant. Many noble families were Huguenots. Such a large number of Protestants, especially among the nobles, threatened the Catholic French monarchy. The monarchy adhered to the idea that all loyal citizens of France should share un roi, une loi, une foi—“one king, one law, one religion.” The religious conflict was a challenge to absolute monarchy.  Conflict and a New King Just as wars between Catholics and Protestants shook Germany, in France fighting broke out between Catholics and Huguenots in 1562 and raged for years. Hostilities took a particularly horrible turn in 1572, when the Catholic queen of France ordered the killing of Huguenots in Paris. Her assassins started with the Huguenot nobles who were in the city for the wedding of Henry of Navarre, a French nobleman. The event became known as the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre. From Paris, the violence spread to other parts of France. Estimates of the final death toll range from 10,000 to 70,000. Henry of Navarre escaped death by denying his religion. Years later, he was in line to become king, but as a Huguenot in a heavily Catholic country, he had to fight Catholic troops to claim the throne. Finally, in 1593 Henry won acceptance by converting to Catholicism and was crowned Henry IV. According to some accounts, he explained his conversion by saying, “Paris is well worth a mass.”  Compromise and Progress Henry knew that a compromise was needed to restore peace. In 1598 he granted some rights to Huguenots by issuing the Edict of Nantes. It gave Huguenots limited freedom of worship. Among other freedoms granted was the right of Huguenots to hold office and to rule 200 towns where they were already in the majority. At the time, the Edict of Nantes was a remarkable document in that it represented a clear break with the conformity of the past. No longer were all the people forced to follow the monarch’s religion. The concept of “one king, one law, one religion” was no longer in effect. French Catholics accepted the edict because it ended the religious wars but still declared Catholicism the official religion of France. In addition, the edict required that Huguenots support the Catholic Church financially. Following the edict’s success, King Henry IV focused on repairing his war-torn country. A major achievement was improving France’s financial situation. Henry eliminated France’s debt and even built up a surplus. He also created new industries, drained swamps, built canals and roads, stimulated trade, and encouraged agriculture. Over time he became one of France’s most respected monarchs.  Louis XIII and Richelieu Henry had only about 10 years to enjoy being king of France. In 1610 a fanatic Catholic stabbed him while his carriage was stopped in traffic. The next king, Louis XIII, was very young (only 8) when he was crowned. For several years he depended upon his mother to serve as regent, that is, to govern in his place. Once Louis XIII was old enough to rule, a Catholic churchman named Cardinal Richelieu became his chief minister and most trusted adviser. Louis XIII was a relatively weak ruler, but Cardinal Richelieu was determined to strengthen the monarchy. Doing so required that its opponents be crushed.  Louis XIII and Richelieu Both Louis XIII and Richelieu wanted to reduce the recently won power of the Huguenots. To teach the Huguenots a lesson, in 1627 Richelieu used a situation at La Rochelle, a Huguenot port city. The people of La Rochelle had sided with English forces that had taken a nearby island. Richelieu’s troops laid siege to the walled city, cutting off its supplies. After 14 months, the starving citizens surrendered. Richelieu ordered the city walls to be torn down and all the city’s churches to become Catholic. His victory was a signal to all Huguenots that resistance to the monarchy carried risks. Richelieu and the king also saw the nobles as a threat, so Richelieu turned to suppressing them. His spies uncovered a series of planned revolts by some nobles. Punishments were severe. For example, Richelieu had three prominent nobles publicly executed for treason. As the king’s chief minister, Richelieu also directed foreign policy. The Thirty Years’ War, about which you will read more later, pitted Catholics against Protestants in Central Europe. Because he wanted to bring down the Hapsburg family, which led the Catholic side of the conflict, Richelieu involved France on the side of the Protestants.  The Monarchy of Louis XIV Richelieu died in 1642, and Louis XIII died one year later. In 1643 the son of Louis XIII was crowned Louis XIV (only 4). History’s best example of an absolute monarch, Louis led France during a time of great power, prosperity, and glory. His reign had a lasting impact on France—both positive and negative.  Rise of the Sun King Like his father, Louis XIV became king, with his mother as regent, at a very young age. A churchman named Cardinal Mazarin, who became chief minister after Cardinal Richelieu, provided advice. Louis was raised to be king. From childhood, he was taught all the skills that a king would eventually need—from interviewing foreign ambassadors and interpreting state papers to hunting and dancing. The young king was quite different from his father. For example, he was supremely confident in his ability to rule. When Cardinal Mazarin died, Louis XIV, who was only 18 years old, declared that he would run the government himself. He declared, “L’état, c’est moi,” meaning “I am the state.” Louis chose the sun as his personal symbol, implying that the world revolved around him. He thus became known as the Sun King.  Absolutism at Versailles For the rest of his long reign, Louis XIV retained absolute power. He began a tradition of absolute monarchy in France that would last for more than a century. Louis demanded that he be in charge of all military, political, and economic initiatives. The religion of his subjects was also to be under his direct control. By drawing so much power to himself and the central government, Louis deprived the nobles of influence. They declined further in status when Louis built an enormous palace at Versailles (ver-SY), a few miles outside of Paris, and required that his nobles visit him there regularly. Nobles gained prestige by becoming servants in the king’s Versailles court instead of by fighting or building local influence far from Paris. In addition, Louis urged the nobles to develop expensive new habits of dressing, dining, and gambling. As the nobles thus grew poorer, they had to depend on the king’s generosity just to survive. An immense complex of buildings and gardens, Versailles was a grand spectacle of kingly power. Louis XIV’s style and ceremony emphasized his political strength. Practically every moment of the king’s day required rituals performed by bowing courtiers. Eating, dressing, walking in the garden—all required a ritual. Versailles  Louis and Protestantism Another way that Louis established absolute monarchy was by smashing the power of the Huguenots once and for all. Since the reign of Henry IV, the Edict of Nantes had protected the Huguenots. For all Richelieu’s efforts, even he had not been able to eliminate that protection. In 1685 Louis made his move. He revoked, or canceled, the edict and outlawed Protestantism in his realm. Over 200,000 Huguenots fled France, including many prosperous merchants and artisans. The loss of their skills and wealth helped cause a financial crisis.  Money and the Military Louis’s finances were always a matter of concern because the grand lifestyle he demanded required a great deal of money. The treasury was saved primarily by the efficient policies of the minister of finance, Jean-Baptiste Colbert. Colbert limited imports and increased exports. In addition, he simplified the tax system. Colbert even reduced the government’s debt. Still, Louis always wanted more money. Louis needed cash to fulfill his greatest ambition—to build up the military and expand French territory. He succeeded in this goal, certainly, by enlarging the army from some 70,000 men to more than 200,000 disciplined soldiers. Louis also spent money on good equipment for his new army. With this mighty force, Louis became the most powerful ruler in Europe, taking France into war four times.  War over a Throne Louis XIV wanted to increase his power beyond the borders of France. He went to war to reclaim territory that France had lost, but his wars cost France dearly. In fact, they cost so much that Louis had to melt down royal silver to pay for army supplies. The most costly of his wars was the War of the Spanish Succession. It began when the Spanish king died without an heir. Three rulers claimed that they should name the successor. Louis was one of the three, because he wanted the Spanish throne for his oldest son. The other European monarchs did not want France and Spain to be so closely connected. Such an alliance could cause economic and political problems for several countries. Therefore, in 1701 England, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire went to war against France. Fighting was not limited to Europe. In North America, the conflict was connected to a phase of the French and Indian Wars. After many defeats, in 1713 Louis accepted the Treaty of Utrecht. Although the treaty said that Louis’s grandson got the Spanish throne, it also said that France and Spain would never be ruled by the same monarch. Louis also had to give up most of the territory he had taken. The war benefited England at the expense of France and Spain. Despite the setback, Louis XIV remained in power until his death in 1715—still an absolute monarch. European Monarchs Next: England  It’s good to be the Queen!!! THE INSIDE STORY: How did a queen get her way? Queen Elizabeth I had a very strong personality—and it showed in her relationship with England’s Parliament. Early in her reign, the members of Parliament asked Elizabeth I when she planned to marry. In response, she told them that she planned to die without a husband, and that it was none of Parliament’s business anyway. She was not interested in sharing power with a king. Elizabeth’s close relationship with Parliament was assisted by her fierce and obvious love for England. In her last speech to Parliament she said, “Though you have had, and may have, many princes more mighty and wise sitting in this seat, yet you never had, nor shall have, any that will be more careful and loving.” Later monarchs would not be as close to Parliament, or so skillful in dealing with it.  The Tudors and Parliament Two prominent members of the Tudor dynasty, Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth I, ruled during the time when absolutism was common on the European continent. In England, though, Parliament placed curbs on absolute monarchy. Both father and daughter had to learn how to work with Parliament to fulfill their goals for England.  Henry’s reign and beyond Henry VIII created the Protestant Church of England so he could divorce his first wife. To effect the split with the Roman Catholic Church, Henry had Parliament pass laws ending the power of the pope in England. In 1534 the Act of Supremacy named the king as the head of the Church of England. After Henry’s death and the short reign of his son Edward, Henry’s daughter Mary I became queen. Often called Bloody Mary, she briefly made England Catholic again. When Mary died in 1558, Elizabeth was crowned queen and returned England to the Anglican, or English Protestant, Church. Parliament helped her do so by passing laws that favored Protestantism.  Elizabeth: The Virgin Queen http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UwuVXp-7XjQ&feature=PlayList&p=C44A31A699792157&playnext=1&index=2 Tension developed between Parliament and the queen when Parliament pressured her to marry so that she would have an heir to the throne. She refused, knowing that marriage to either an Englishman or a foreigner could limit her freedom. Still, she managed to talk Parliament into approving the funds she needed. A major reason for Elizabeth’s good relationship with Parliament was her willingness to let the members speak their minds without fear of punishment. Her close ties to Parliament show in the fact that she called it into session 10 times during her 45-year reign. While Elizabeth was clearly in charge, she had some difficulty keeping her subjects from questioning her actions. For example, in 1601 one of her favorite courtiers, the Earl of Essex, rebelled against the queen’s authority. He asked publicly, “Cannot princes err? Cannot subjects receive wrong? Is an earthly power or authority infinite?” Essex was tried and executed, but he was not the last to question the English monarch’s authority.  Monarchy and Conflict in Central Europe Unlike the monarchs of Russia and Western Europe, rulers in Central Europe in the 1500s and 1600s never became absolute monarchs. The Holy Roman Empire, which included most of Central Europe at that time, was headed by a single emperor, but he did not have total authority. His empire included dozens of small states, each with its own ruler, who fought vigorously against increased imperial power. Since the 1450s, all of the Holy Roman Emperors had come from a single family, the Hapsburgs. In the early 1600s, an attempt by one of the Hapsburg emperors to exert his authority launched a terrible conflict known as the Thirty Years’ War. Alliances between the Hapsburgs and other European monarchs helped make the war a continent-wide affair.  The Thirty Years’ War The Thirty Years’ War began as a religious dispute. In 1618 in Prague (now in the Czech Republic) an official representing Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II, who was Roman Catholic, ordered that two Protestant churches be shut down. Local Protestants were furious. They responded by throwing the emperor’s representatives out of the palace windows. Although the men landed on a rubbish heap and were unhurt, their dignity was damaged. The emperor’s attempt to control people’s religion sparked revolt throughout the region. Nobles in the German states of Bavaria and Austria rebelled against the emperor, and nobles from other states soon joined them. The rulers of other countries became involved in the war as well. The monarchs of Spain, who were also members of the Hapsburg family, joined the war on Ferdinand’s side. In response, the king of France, Spain’s rival, joined the Protestant opposition. The kings of Denmark and Sweden also joined on the Protestant side. The Thirty Years’ War dragged on until 1648, with devastating effects on Germany. Several million Germans died—in battle, from disease, or starvation because their fields were ruined. In the end, the two sides agreed to the Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the war.  Results of the Treaty The Holy Roman Empire no longer Exists-it’s broken up into 300+ states (could chose their own religion); Austria & Prussia strongest Switzerland & The Netherlands are given their independence Sweden, and France gain more territory England became more powerful International law is created for handling disputes/war  Austria and Prussia Among the rulers who gained from the treaty were the leaders of Austria and Prussia. Austria was governed by the Hapsburg family, while Prussia’s rulers came from a rival family, the Hohenzollerns. In 1740 the Hapsburg Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI died without a male heir. But before he died he had approved a document called the Pragmatic Sanction, which stated that the empire could be passed to a female heir. It seemed his daughter, Maria Theresa, would take the throne. The Hohenzollerns had a different plan. Frederick II of Prussia, also called Frederick the Great, seized the Austrian province of Silesia, which had minerals and industries. To avoid a long war, Frederick offered Maria Theresa an alliance. He also promised to help her husband become Holy Roman Emperor. Maria Theresa turned him down, and the War of the Austrian Succession broke out in 1740. Soon Spain, France, and two German states entered the war on Prussia’s side, each hoping to gain territory. With so much against her, Maria Theresa asked for peace in 1748. Prussia kept Silesia, launching Prussia to a position of real power.  Continued Rivalry Prussia’s victory only intensified the rivalry between Austria and Hungary, and it was not long before war broke out again. In 1756 the Seven Years’ War began. On one side were Prussia—still ruled by Frederick the Great—and Great Britain. On the other were Austria, France, and Russia. Fighting occurred not just in Europe, but also in the enemies’ colonies in North America and India. During the first part of the war, Prussia was on the verge of defeat. At one point, Austrian and Russian forces even occupied the capital, Berlin. But then Russia pulled out of the war, allowing Prussia to regain strength. Eventually, Prussia emerged as the strongest military power in Europe. With his newfound might, Frederick pushed his opponents out of Prussia. As a result, the war ended in 1763 with both sides exhausted. However, the rivalry between Austria and Prussia was far from over. Hapsburgs and Hohenzollerns struggled for control of Central Europe for many more years.  The Stuarts and Parliament The Tudors’ success with Parliament was not repeated by their successors. When Elizabeth I died in 1603, a relative of the Tudors from Scotland became king. James I was the first member of the Stuart dynasty to rule in England. His view of absolute monarchy caused conflict with Parliament.  James I Clashes with Parliament James faced problems from the start. He believed firmly in the divine right of kings and wanted to rule as an absolute monarch. But wars waged by his predecessors, combined with his own spending, left him low on funds. In addition, because he was from Scotland, he was considered an outsider. For all of these reasons, he had difficulty getting along with Parliament. Although James called Parliament repeatedly during his reign, he was rarely able to get Parliament to approve all the money he wanted. As Parliament increased its influence, another group was starting to make itself known. The Puritans, a group of strict Calvinists, demanded that the Church of England be further reformed. They wanted to “purify” the English church of practices they thought were still too Catholic. For example, priests still dressed in elaborate robes, and worshippers knelt during services. Another of the Puritans’ goals was to take power away from church officials. James saw this stance as a threat to his power because the church leadership supported him. As a result, he refused to pass most of the Puritans’ requests for reform. One reform James agreed to was the publication of an English version of the Bible that became known as the King James Bible. The Gun Powder Plot In November 1605, the infamous Gunpowder Plot took place in which some Catholics plotted to blow up James I, his family and whoever else was in Parliament Catholics in England had expected James to be more tolerant of them; he wasn’t so they decided to kill James This led to a plot to kill not only the king of England, James, but also everyone sitting in the Houses of Parliament at the same time as James was there when he opened Parliament on November 5th, 1605. Guy Fawkes and his fellow conspirators, having rented out a house right by the Houses of Parliament, managed to get 36 barrels of gunpowder into a cellar of the House of Lords Fawkes was caught when a group of guards decided to check the cellars at the last moment; Fawkes was arrested and sent to the Tower of London where he was tortured and eventually gave away the names of the fellow conspirators Of those involved, some were shot as they were chased by the law such, others were captured, sent to the Tower and, after a brief trial, eventually hung, drawn and quartered, with Fawkes, in January 1606.  Charles I Defies Parliament When James I died, his younger son was crowned king as Charles I. He was popular at first, but married a Catholic princess and involved England in military adventures overseas. In 1628 Charles summoned Parliament to request money. Parliament refused to grant it until Charles signed a document, called the Petition of Right, that placed limits on the king’s power. Among the document’s provisions was a statement that the king could not levy taxes without Parliament’s approval. Nor could he imprison anyone without legal justification, force citizens to house soldiers, or declare martial law in peacetime. The Petition of Right was a direct challenge to absolute monarchy. When Parliament refused to give him money again later, Charles taxed the English people on his own and forced bankers to loan him money. The members of Parliament were furious. In response, Charles dismissed Parliament and in 1629 decided to rule without consulting Parliament ever again.  The English Civil War Conflict continued between a king who believed in absolute monarchy and a Parliament that saw itself as independent of the king. The conflict became so severe that it led to war and even the king’s death.  Parliament Reconvened In 1640 Charles I was badly in debt, thanks to a religious rebellion in Scotland. He finally had to reconvene Parliament so he could ask for more money. This session became known as the Long Parliament because it did not disband for many years. After being ignored for 11 years, the members of Parliament were in no mood to bow to the king’s wishes, and they took the opportunity to further limit the king’s powers. They demanded that Parliament must be called at least every three years, and the king could no longer dismiss Parliament. Charles I accepted these new rules, but he awaited the right moment to overturn them.  Petition of Right Cannot put troops in citizens’ homes Freedom of Speech Right to Trial Concepts of due process (consult Parliament)  War with Parliament That moment came when a radical Puritan group within Parliament moved to abolish the appointment of bishops in the Anglican Church. The king, whose power was connected to the power of the church, was outraged. For this insult, Charles decided to arrest the Puritan leaders for treason. He led troops into the House of Commons to make the arrest, but the men had already escaped. Now Charles had given away his intentions to take back power. Some members of Parliament decided to rise up against the king. Charles I called for the support of the English people. Within months, in 1642, the English Civil War began. Without funding from Parliament, the king had to rely on contributions to pay for an army. His supporters, mainly wealthy nobles, were called Royalists or Cavaliers for their allegiance to his royal person. On the other side, Parliament could back its army by voting for funding. Supporters of Parliament were called Roundheads, from their short, bowl-shaped haircuts, which contrasted with the Royalists’ long wigs. The Roundheads included Puritans, merchants, and some members of the upper classes. Leading the Roundhead forces was a member of Parliament named Oliver Cromwell. He had risen to leadership as an army general. In 1644, at the first truly decisive battle of the war, he led a victory in which 4,000 of the king’s soldiers died. Cromwell continued to rise in power until he became commander-in-chief of Parliament’s army. The Royalist army was outmatched by Cromwell’s disciplined troops. In 1646 the king surrendered. Now in full control, Cromwell dismissed all members of Parliament who disagreed with him. Those who were left made up what was called the Rump Parliament.  Trial and Execution Eventually the Rump Parliament charged the king with treason and put him on trial. During his trial, Charles defended himself with great eloquence but refused to even recognize Parliament’s authority to try him. “I do stand more for the liberty of my people than any here that come to be my pretended judges,” he declared. In the end, the king was sentenced to death for treason. On January 30, 1649, Charles I was publicly beheaded in front of his own palace—the first European monarch to be formally tried and sentenced to death by a court of law. To some people he was a martyr, to others a tyrant who got what he deserved. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k88K8AMVcgg  England under Cromwell For the next 11 years, England’s government changed completely. The House of Commons abolished the House of Lords and outlawed the monarchy. England became a commonwealth, which is a republican government based on the common good of all the people. In 1653 Cromwell was given the title Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Although Cromwell was a skilled leader, he demanded complete obedience. He clamped down on English social life by closing the theaters and limiting other forms of popular entertainment. Cromwell had to deal with foreign issues, too. He led military expeditions to Scotland and Ireland. His economic policies led to a war with the Dutch over trade. To limit Spanish activity in the Americas, he also warred on Spain.  A Defender of Absolutism Cromwell, the king’s death, and the war troubled many of the English people. One of them was Thomas Hobbes, a Royalist who fled to France during Cromwell’s rule. Hobbes wrote what is now a classic work of political science, Leviathan. In it, Hobbes described humans as being naturally selfish and fearful. Life in nature, he wrote, was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” Hobbes argued that people needed an all-powerful monarch to tell them how to live. His views sparked controversy during a time when England was trying to find a balance between government by the people’s representatives and the monarchy.  The Monarchy Returns Thomas Hobbes’s ideas reflected the fact that many people were unhappy under Cromwell, especially when he dismissed Parliament to rule. Attitudes were changing so much that a return to monarchy became possible. The Restoration When Cromwell died in 1658, his son took his place. Richard Cromwell lacked his father’s leadership abilities, though, and his government collapsed. Eventually Parliament reconvened and voted to bring back the monarchy—an event known as the Restoration. In the spring of 1660, Parliament invited the son of the dead Charles I, also named Charles, to be the new king. Parliament laid out certain conditions, which Charles accepted, along with the invitation. He would be crowned King Charles II. As he rode into London upon his return, the people shouted their good wishes.  The Reign of Charles II Charles knew that as king he had to watch his step. When his policies were opposed, he usually gave in. Still, he had to address many issues. Conflict with the Dutch continued. Religious tensions remained. And the role of Parliament was still being developed. Charles supported religious toleration for Catholics, for example, but Parliament insisted upon laws to strengthen the Church of England. The Restoration years were a mixture of positive and negative events. On one hand, Charles reopened the theaters, with a flowering of English drama as the result. Another positive event was passage of the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679. This act guaranteed that someone accused of a crime had the right to appear in court to determine if the accused should be held or released. The act is one of the most important in English history. England also suffered setbacks during the reign of Charles II. In 1665 the bubonic plague returned, killing perhaps 100,000 people in London alone. The next year, the Great Fire of London destroyed large parts of the city—but also killed the rats that had spread the deadly plague. After the fire, though, Charles supported public construction projects.  James II Later in Charles’s reign the question of who would succeed him remained. His brother, James, was next in line, but he was Catholic. In addition, James had married a Catholic princess whose Catholic son would outrank James’s Protestant daughters from his first marriage. When Charles died in 1685, James II was crowned king. Many people wondered if another destructive war would follow. James was not popular. Besides being a Catholic, he believed wholeheartedly in his right to rule as an absolute monarch. The English people, however, would no longer tolerate such a belief.  A Bloodless Revolution The Glorious Revolution Despite the efforts of Parliament to exclude James (Whigs’ Exclusion Bill) from being king he does so when Charles II dies. His action of appointing Catholics to gov. positions & freedom of worship to Catholics along with the birth of a Catholic son will freak Parliament out. So, in 1688 a group of nobles invited James’s daughter Mary and her husband William to become king and queen of England. William and Mary were both Protestants, living in the Netherlands. James, knowing that it was pointless to fight, fled to France. Parliament gave the throne to William III and Mary II as joint rulers. This transfer of power became known as the Glorious Revolution.  English Bill of Rights Need consent of Parliament to pass laws and tax Prevents excessive bail Trial by Jury Petition the government Bear Arms  Parliament and the Crown Changes in Government-With the Glorious Revolution, Parliament had essentially crowned the new king and queen. More important was a document that William and Mary had to sign before taking the throne: the English Bill of Rights. This document prevented the monarch from levying taxes, raising an army, or suspend the laws without the consent of Parliament. Also guaranteed the right to trial by jury, forbade cruel & unusual punishment, limited bail, appeals and speak freely in Parliament. Also passed the Act of Settlement-prevented any Catholic from becoming monarch; Exclusionary issues in Ireland too) The Bill of Rights was central to England’s growth as a constitutional monarchy, the term for a monarchy limited by law. Combined efforts of the Magna Charta, Petition of Right and the English Bill of Rights. England had rejected the concept of an absolute monarch who supposedly ruled by divine right for a monarchy ruled by law.  Union & Prime Minister To prevent reprisals from Scotland the Act of Union was passed in 1707; England & Scotland become “Great Britain”; Scotland gives up their own Parliament but get representation, own religion, laws & courts Cabinet advisors (from majority party)gain more power during Anne & George’s reigns-head of cabinet becomes Prime Minister will later become the chief official of British govt and also act as an advisor to the monarch – Tories: aristocrats who like royalty and supported the Anglican Church – Whigs: favored businesses and merchants, supported religious toleration and favored Parliamentary rule. European Monarchs Last one: Russia  Ivan the “not so” terrible? THE INSIDE STORY: How did a ruler earn such a bad reputation? The young Russian emperor, Ivan IV, seemed reasonable at first and made several positive reforms. He also went to war to expand Russia’s territory. When he seized the city of Kazan, the Russian people gave him the nickname groznyi, which means “fearsome” or “stern.” However, the word has also been translated as “terrible.” Ivan’s actions did indeed become terrible, as he slipped into periods of uncontrollable rage, suspicion, and violence. Whole towns were burned and their people sent away. Ivan killed some enemies while they were in church. He had leading citizens publicly executed in grisly ways designed to horrify the many witnesses. Ivan even mortally wounded his own son in an argument. This incident probably sealed his reputation for all time as “Ivan the Terrible.”  The Monarchy of Ivan IV In the 1500s Russia was far behind western Europe in technological advancement and centralized government. At the time, Russia was run, in effect, by church officials and boyars, or landowners, usually with conservative viewpoints. Then, in 1546 a young prince claimed the title of czar (ZAHR) and put Russia on a different course. The title was a version of the Latin word caesar, or emperor, the title used by the Romans. The new czar, whose name was Ivan, intended to rule without limits on his power. But his own madness created chaos.  Reforms of Ivan IV During the early years of his rule, Ivan IV made many reforms. He created a general council that included merchants and lower-level nobles. He also began to promote military officers on merit rather than status and drew up a new legal code. These and similar reforms reduced the boyars’ power. Ivan also expanded Russia’s borders and trade. He defeated the Tatars, who had succeeded the Mongols, and expanded Russian territory east to the Volga River. Controlling the length of the Volga to the Caspian Sea increased trade. As a result of such achievements, the years from 1547 to 1563 are known as Ivan’s “good period.”  Ivan the Terrible During the 1560s, Ivan changed. It was during this time that his strict policies and violent actions sealed his reputation as Ivan the Terrible. First, he became suspicious of his closest advisers and sent them away, killing many of their supporters. When his wife Anastasia died, he became convinced that she was murdered and that people were conspiring against him. To investigate and punish the opposition, Ivan created a private police force of some 6,000 men. These men dressed in black and rode black horses. They controlled almost half of Russia’s territory in Ivan’s name and brutally punished anyone who spoke out against the czar’s policies. Ivan’s harshness continued when in 1565 he seized land from 12,000 boyars. Soon after, he ordered the killing of thousands of people in the city of Novgorod because he suspected that they wanted to separate from Russia. Ivan’s descent into mental illness seemed complete when in 1581 he killed his own son, who was next in line to be czar. Although it may have been an accident, the death of Ivan’s son left Russia without an heir to the throne. As a result, power changed hands many times. Uncertainty about the succession, economic problems, and foreign invasions added up to a chaotic period known as the Time of Troubles. It lasted until 1613, when Michael, a relative of Ivan’s first wife, was crowned czar. Michael was the first of the Romanov dynasty, which ruled Russia until 1917.  Peter the Great About 70 years later, Peter I was crowned czar. Known later as Peter the Great for his efforts to transform Russia into a modern state, Peter had the strength to regain absolute power for the Russian monarchy.  Early Rule Peter became czar in 1682 while he was still a child, so his sister insisted on ruling in his place. At the age of 17, Peter removed his sister from the throne and took power for himself. Peter was an impressive man. He was about six and a half feet tall, and it was said that he was so strong he could roll up a heavy silver platter as if it were foil. Peter also had a strong personality and boundless energy. One of Czar Peter’s first acts was to storm Azov, a Black Sea port held by Turks. The attack was a disaster, but it inspired Peter to build a navy. Peter labored side-by-side with thousands of carpenters to build hundreds of ships. When Peter’s new navy took up the campaign against Azov, the Turks surrendered.  Modernization and Reform As Russia’s ruler, Peter realized that his country needed to modernize to catch up with the rest of Europe. He was determined to bring elements of Western culture to Russia. This process is known as westernization. In 1697 Peter began a journey to western Europe to see for himself what Russia needed to modernize. He traveled in disguise but was sometimes recognized anyway. Wherever Peter went, he learned hands-on skills, especially shipbuilding. He also recruited European experts to bring their skills to Russia. This historic trip was cut short, though, by a rebellion among the streltsy, a military corps that also had political influence. Certain that the streltsy wanted to put his sister back on the throne, Peter had many members tortured and then executed. Finally, he disbanded the streltsy and organized a more modern army. In addition to modernizing the army, Peter made many other reforms. He brought the church under state control, built up Russian industry, started the first newspaper in Russia, and sponsored new schools. Peter modernized the calendar and promoted officials based on service instead of their social status. Peter also supported education, believing that Russians needed to learn more about science and other critical fields from the West.  Modernization and Reform Some reforms were less important but did affect people’s daily lives. For example, Peter wanted Russians to adopt European styles of clothing and grooming. Peter even personally cut off the boyars’ traditional long coats and beards so they would look more European. The boyars resented and resisted such actions. Through these and other reforms, Peter tried to impose his will on the Russian people and make Russia a more modern country. Although he was not always successful, Peter the Great is often considered the founder of modern Russia for his efforts.  Founding of St. Petersburg In addition to his many reforms, Peter also founded a new city. In the early 1700s, Peter fought Sweden to acquire a warm-water port. Russia’s other ports were choked by ice much of the year. A port farther south on the Baltic Sea would keep Russia open to western trade all year long and help connect Russia to the west. On land he won from Sweden, Peter built a new capital, St. Petersburg, and Russia’s government was moved to the new city. St. Petersburg featured Western-style architecture, rather than traditional Russian styles.  St. Petersburg Peterhof, Peter the Great’s own palace, is outside the city, linked directly to the Gulf of Finland by a canal. This view of a bridge Pictured above is the over the Neva River Grand Cascade. shows the grandeur of St. Petersburg. Several palaces make up the Hermitage. The original palace was built for Peter’s daughter Elizabeth, who took the Russian throne in 1741. Today, the Hermitage is one of the world’s finest art museums.  Catherine the Great next important ruler was actually a German princess who came to Russia to marry a grandson of Peter the Great. She became known as Catherine the Great. Catherine Takes Power After her husband became Czar Peter III in 1761, Catherine and many Russian nobles grew angry at his weak and incompetent rule. With the help of her allies, Catherine seized power from the new czar, who was murdered. Catherine II was declared czarina of Russia. The word czarina is the female form of “czar.”  Early Reforms Catherine saw herself as the true successor of Peter the Great and worked to build on his westernization efforts. To emphasize the legitimacy of her claim, she built a bronze statue in St. Petersburg honoring Peter. It was inscribed “To Peter the First, from Catherine the Second.” Catherine began an ambitious plan of reforms. She was influenced by major European thinkers of the time who believed that a strong and wise ruler could improve life for his or her subjects. Catherine reformed Russia’s legal and education systems and removed some restrictions on trade. She also promoted science and the arts.  Challenges to Catherine’s Rule As Catherine tried to reform Russia, she was soon distracted by conflict. A few years after taking power, she faced war in Poland, where people wanted freedom from Russian influence. In 1768 the Ottoman Empire joined the Polish cause. Eventually, Russia won the war and took over half of Poland and territory on the Black Sea, a valuable outlet for sea trade. While the war was still raging, Catherine faced a popular rebellion inside Russia. A man named Yemelyan Pugachev was traveling the countryside claiming that he was Peter III and had not been murdered after all. Pugachev gained support among Russia’s peasants and led a ragtag army that took over many areas before the rebellion was put down. In the end, Pugachev was captured and beheaded. The revolt convinced Catherine that she needed to strengthen the authority of the monarchy in rural areas. She completely reorganized local governments and put their administration in the hands of area landowners and nobles. In return for their service as government officials, Catherine reduced their taxes and gave them absolute control over their lands and peasants.