Themes & Methods In Developmental Psychology PDF

Themes & Methods in Developmental Psychology Developmental psychologist: are researchers who study how people adapt, grow, and develop across their lifetime Enduring Themes...

Themes & Methods in Developmental Psychology Developmental psychologist: are researchers who study how people adapt, grow, and develop across their lifetime Enduring Themes Chronological order Thematic issues Chronolofical order: Interest to developmental psychologist including a process from birth to Thematics issues: Interest to developmental psychologists include stability and change, nature and death nurture, and continuous and discontinuous stages of development. Thematic Issues Stability: Change: Stability: Argues that a person’s personality traits during infancy will stay the same throughout Change: Argues that our personalities are modified by events in our lifespan and interactions with family their lifespan and friends Nature: Nurture: Nature: Genetically inherit physical traits from our parents but also inherit personality, Nurture: The area we grew up in and how our parents raised us are factors that determine who we intelligence, and preferences are Continuous: Discontinuous: Continuous: Way of explaining our development. Explained as development being a continuous Discontinuous: Explaining development through different stages journey Design Methods Longitudinal Study Longitudinal Study: Studying the same group over a considerable span of time Pros Cons Examines changes within individuals over time and provides a developmental analysis Expensive, takes a long time, participant attribution, possibility of practice effects, limited to one cohort, and time in history effects confounded with age changes Cross-Sectional Study Cross-sectional Study: Studying different groups of individuals with different ages Pros Cons Examines changes between participants of different ages at the same point in time and provides Cannot examine change over time, limited to one time in history, and cohort differences confounded with information on age differences age differences Physical Development across the Lifespan: Infancy & Childhood Before Birth Teratogens:Toxic substances that can harm a baby's development in the wound Maternal illness Genetic mutations What other factors influence prenatal development? Hormonal factors Environmental factors Infancy & Toddlerhood Reflexes How do reflexes indicate the physical development of an They allow doctors to know that they are correctly developing infant? Rooting reflex: When babies feel something in either cheek and try to feed themselves. Motor Development Gross motor skills: Roll, Rock, Crawl, Walk, Run What is important to understand about the order and the Important to understand that even though there is a universal order, not everyone uses this order and can be healthy as well progression of these skills? Fine motor skills: Coordination of small muscle groups primarily in the hands and fingers(tying a shoe, playing an instrument) Depth Perception Explain the visual cliff experiment and the findings of Richard Walk and Eleanor Gibson. Be sure to identify elements of experimentation as practice! Babies on Birth Video Experiment They are testing the babies to see how they react to a fear of heights Dependent Variable: Depth perception/ fear of heights Independent Variable: The surface the babies are crawling Results: Small babies had different results from bigger ones because they haven’t developed depth perception while the bigger ones have because they found out that crawling develops depth perception Critical and Sensitive Periods Critical period: Sensitive period: You can only develop certain things at specific times When you are more sensitive to developing and learning new things Application to language acquisition: Application to language acquisition: Must be exposed to language from year 0 to 5 Through years 0 to 5 there is more sensitivity to learning a language and a second language Imprinting: Animal behavior where newborn birds and some mammals follow the first things they see Adolescence What differences and similarities do you see across time and Over generations and cultures, there have been many different approaches and views on puberty. Some cultures view this differently cultures in your book? Growth spurt: Rapid increase in physical development Puberty: Growth spurt that marks the transition from childhood to adulthood marked by reproductive ability Menarche: First menstrual period in females Spermarche: First ejaculation in males Primary sex characteristics Secondary sex characteristics Directly related to reproduction ex. Menarche, Spermarche, increase in size of vagina and uterus, Not necessarily related to reproductive measures ex. pubic hair, acne, voice deepens, facial hair, Increase in size of scrotum and testes increased body odor How can puberty influence one’s social experience? More aware of body changes Adulthood How are abilities characterized in adulthood? Steady decline in: reproductive ability, menopause, mobility, flexibility, reaction time, senses, vision, and hearing What abilities are most impacted and how do they change? Decline in certain physical abilities such as reflexes but also senses such as vision Gender & Sexual Orientation Biological Sex Biological sex: chromosomes (XX or XY), gonads, and hormones influence the biological sex (male or female) What factors determine biological sex? The set of chromosomes you have Which parent determines the biological sex? The male Intersex: Variation in biological sex Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome: Individuals born with external female characteristics but do not have a uterus because they have male chromosomes What are some variations of biological sex? What Turner Syndrome: When females are short in height don't go through puberty and are infertile, also have developmental delays and heart contributes to these variations? complications Klinefelter Syndrome: When the chromosomes are XXY, they have normal testes but have low testosterone don't produce sperm, and have breast enlargements Gender Gender: A concept built through society and is established by society, culture, beliefs, and behaviors What factors contribute to gender? Society, culture, time Gender roles: A pattern of behavior and personality traits that defines masculinity of femininity How do children develop gender roles? They develop them based on their figure or role model parent and how their gender usually behaves in society How can stereotypes impact gender? Stereotypes usually lead to a certain type of behavior and what they want to pursue Gender Identity Gender identity: how you feel inside and how you express gender through clothing, behavior, or personal ideas Gender non-conformity: Not conforming to the gender you have been assigned with Identify and explain some variations of gender within our Androgyny: The presence of masculinity and femininity within one individual society. Transgender: Anyone whose gender differs from their sex assigned at birth Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation: One’s enduring attraction toward others or lack it. Genetics: A study said that 52% of identical twins had the same sexual orientation but only 22% of fraternal twins had the same sexual orientation Identify and explain the factors that contribute to sexual Prenatal Hormones: Females that were defined as homosexual had higher levels of the hormone androgen during the prenatal stage orientation: Social Influences: What your parents, culture, and religions say about it Cognitive Development across the Lifespan  Cognitive Development Jean Piaget & Stages of Cognitive Development: developed stages of cognitive development (continuous vs discontinuous) He thought that intelligence was the ability to adapt to the environment through an equilibration process. How do these stages demonstrate the enduring theme of Some are continuous and others are discontinuous continuous and discontinuous development? Terminology Schema: Basic knowledge of a subject Assimilation: same schema with new information Accommodation: change of concept in the schema; change in the schema Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor ( From 0-2 years old): Characterised by the development of sense, they usually start copying things they see. Object permanence: The awareness that things continue to exist hasn’t developed yet Preoperational (toddlerhood through early childhood): Inability to perform tasks such as conservation and reversibility. Mental symbols: Mental representations of objects in the world around them Pretend play: Fantasy or make-believe play that includes an as-if orientation to actions, objects, and peers. It often involves playing a distinct role such as mother, teacher, doctor, and animals Conservation: The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Reversibility: A mental operation that reverses a sequence of events or restores a changed state of affairs to the original condition Animism: Giving life-like characteristics such as intentions, desires, and feelings to objects Egocentrism: The inability to see the world through the perspective of another Theory of mind: Knowing that others have their own thought processes Concrete Operational Concrete operational: ​ - (early childhood through late childhood) - Logical thought - Multicategorical - Struggle with systematic thinking​ - Conservation Formal Operational (Late-childhood through adulthood) Abstract thinking: Imagination that is not based on physical objects that we can see Hypothetical reasoning: forming inferences and going through all the possible consequences of the inference Zone of Proximal Development Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: Inner Circle: what the learner can do alone Middle circle: what the learner can do with help Outside circle: what the learner cannot do Scaffolding:A kind of support adults and teachers progressively give harder and harder problem and ask children to explain their reasoning for learning that allows them to work independently Adulthood Crystallized intelligence: Fluid intelligence: knowledge of the world, experience, expertise Concerned with creativity and flexible problem-solving skills Dementia: Loss of memory and can be other cognitive and executive functions Communication and Language Development Key Components of Language Language: Creative, shared system of symbols, including phonemes and morphemes, governed by grammar, which includes semantics and syntax rules It is generative (generates or develops in a reality) Phonemes: The smallest individual sounds in any language (letters or combination of letters) Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in language (meaningful sounds) Semantics: The component of language that provides both the meaning of words and how words combine to form meaning (how a sentence has meaning) Grammar Syntax: The aspect of grammar that refers to the rules used to put words in the correct order in a sentence Grammar: Set of rules for creating and ordering sentences Language Development It could be used with signs, body language, and other cultural signs How is non-verbal communication used within a culture? Cooing: Involves the soft vowel-like sounds produced by babies when they appear to be happy or content Ex: a o u ect Babbling: Involves consonant-like sounds and begins around six months Ex: sounds like moaning What are the stages of formal language development? One word stage: is when children communicate using single words that often convey complex ideas, This is typical from Give examples of how one would communicate at each stage. 10-18 months Ex: mama papa no Telegraphic speech: involves the first multi-word speech consisting of two or three-word expressions typical from 18-30 months Ex: no quiero eso no me gusta How can critical and sensitive periods apply to language acquisition and The critical period is when language must happen and certain language needs to be learned. The sensitive period is a development? more extended period of language acquisition Overgeneralization: This is a characteristic error when learning a language in which individuals apply grammatic rules too broadly Ex: misspelled words like, goed, eated, throwed Cultural Considerations It can influence depending on your education and role models such as parents and you might be impacted by their way How can culture impact language acquisition and development? of pronouncing words and cultural slang also affects the development of language. Social-Emotional Development across the Lifespan Ecological Systems Theory Ecological systems theory: A scientific approach to study lifespan development that empathizes the interdependence of different developmental processes and how they affect the individual Chronosystem (dimension of time) 1st: changing personal and societal conditions over the life course ​ Macrosystem 2nd: Economic and political system, dominant beliefs and ideologies Exosystem 3rd: indirect factors Mesosystem 4th: (Interaction of any two microsystems Microsystem 5th: (Bidirectional Influence) Developing child 6th: age, sex, health, abilities, temperament Parenting Styles Authoritarian: Parents expect them to obey all the time, have a lot of boundaries, a lot of rules, and low emotional support Authoritative: They also have boundaries but also have feelings and give emotional support to the child Permissive: Firm and set boundaries but allow flexibility and provide emotional support Cultural Differences in Parenting Depending on the culture there can be certain styles of parenting that are more common or are more supportive. This can be influenced by the type of political government in the country.  Attachment Attachment: The emotional bond between a human infant and its parent figures or caregiver Temperament: A person’s nature, especially as it permanently affects their behavior Cultural influences: Different cultures affect how people see temperament and attachment Secure Attachment Secure: The child becomes distressed when the parent leaves, but is easily comforted when the parent returns Insecure Attachment Avoidant: Anxious: Disorganized: Child is not distressed when parent leaves and ignores or Child is distressed when parent leaves and seeks to punish the Child does not have a predictable pattern of attachment. avoids the parent when they return. This is the childs covert parent for leaving when the parent returns by displaying overt Includes chil who displays signs of depression and disturbing way of managing their anxiety feelings such as anger behavior Separation anxiety: anxiety caused by separation from primary caregivers ​ Stranger anxiety: adaptive behavior How has research with monkeys inform psychology’s Physical comfort is more important for attachment that the availability of food understanding of attachment? Social Development Childhood & Adolescence How do children engage with peers? Around the age of 2 years, they primarily play with toys = parallel play They show egocentrism often demonstrated through the imaginary audience and personal fable What importance do peer relationships have in adolescence? Imaginary audience: Imaginary monsters that everyone is always judging you Personal fable: belief that self is unique and invulnerable and omnipotent (nothing bad can happen to you) Adulthood What do relationships look like in adulthood? They look for support in their relationships the way you attach to primary caregivers influence how you later attach to people during your life What importance can attachment have in adulthood? Culture Social clock: what society expects of individuals at other time periods Emerging adulthood: transition between teenage years and young adults The Stage Theory of Psychosocial Development Trust and mistrust: Happens in infancy; the baby learns to trust or not trust a primary caregiver; attachment is generalized to people Autonomy and shame and doubt: Will: They begin to feel an impulse and want to be more independent Doubt: They care what other people say and that might affect their choices and don’t do stuff Initiative and guilt: Initiative: There is a sense of purpose wanting them to do new activities and have new desires Guilt: This is when you don't solve the problem properly and there is a sense of guilt Industry and inferiority: Industry: Children are discovering new things they can do and feel empowered Inferiority: When children are not able to keep up with the rest and notice they are not able to do things the other people their age can Identity and role confusion: Fidelity: The ability to stay true to your beliefs, values, and identity while remaining loyal to others even when encountering differences. Maldevelopment: ​ Repudiation: Refers to the neglect and denial of something. This can be beliefs, values, or relationships due to confusion or fear of losing their identity. Intimacy and isolation: young adult; feels alone if not in a relationship; rising in intimacy; feeling of conectiveness Generativity and stagnation: Generativity: They feel like they have a meaning and a spot in society were they contribute Stagnation: When they struggle to find a place in society and don't feel like they contribute as much as they would like to Integrity and despair: Integrity: There is satisfaction and acceptance in your life and find peace with what you accomplished in life. Despair: This is when you find conflict with your life and feel like you didn’t fulfill and did all of what you could do in life Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Adverse Childhood Experiences: Potentially traumatic events that occur before a child reaches the age of 18 How can sociocultural differences influence ACEs? There are multiple illnesses developed that can be correlated to sociocultural differences. Identity Development Commitment? No Yes E x Identity diffusion: Identity foreclosure: pl​ There is no crisis nor commitment and does take action or decision. They take action but there is no crisis because they don’t explore because of fear. ra N ti o o n ? Identity moratorium: Identity achievement: Y They explore options but are not able to make a decision yet After confusion being able to conform to a decision and knowing what option is right e for you s gender, beliefs, religion, upbringing by parents, relations with close people, society and self expectations What other processes are involved in developing one’s identity? Possible self: The idea of what you want to become and what you are afraid of becoming Classical Conditioning Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience Classical conditioning: A type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus when paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex response results in a learned, or conditioned, response when the now conditioned stimulus is presented Associative learning: The principle that one stimulus that is paired with another will cause a response Elements of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus: A stimulus that elicits an automatic or involuntary response and after some time the initial stimulus will cause that response Unconditioned response: Any original response that occurs naturally and in the absence of conditioning Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that initially does not elicit the reflex or automatic response being studied Conditioned stimulus: A neutral stimulus that is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it acquires the ability to elicit a response that it previously did not Conditioned response: The learned or acquired response to a conditioned stimulus Procedures Acquisition: Learning when a condition response is established When should the NS be presented in respect to the UCS for As close as possible or right before depending on the test acquisition to be most effective?  How would one test to see if acquisition has occurred? By presenting the conditioned stimulus alone to see if it produces a response Extinction: The decrease or disappearance of a conditioned response What is the procedure for extinguishing a conditioned Stop that stimulus from happening response? Spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of a conditioned response after a rest period or a period of lessened response Stimulus generalization: The elicitation of a conditioned response by stimulation similar but not identical to the original stimulus Stimulus discrimination: The ability to distinguish between like stimuli and respond to specific stimuli only Higher-order conditioning: Conditioned stimulus used as unconditioned stimulus (Light + sound + dog salivation) Emotional Responses Explain the research involving classically conditioning emotional Little Albert learned to avoid animals because of classical conditioning responses: Counterconditioning: Associating a stimulus that produces a desired response with one that produces a negative one then the negative one will produce a positive one How does this apply to therapeutic interventions for psychological we can use counterconditioning to fight psychological disorders like ptsd disorders? Taste Aversion Taste aversion: When the conditioned stimulus is a new taste the unconditioned stimulus is a drug causing nausea and the conditioned response is avoidance of that taste One-trial conditioning: Learning from the first time con Biological preparedness: When your body prepares for the natural response that the unconditioned stimulus causes and then with the conditioned stimulus alone. How can classically conditioning an aversive reaction be used to Help treat people with alcoholism and obesity benefit others? Habituation Habituation: Self-adapting to stimulus Diminished response to the stimulus after time to exposure to it Moving close to the airport and after a certain period of time ignoring the noise of the planes that pass by What is an example of habituation? Operant Conditioning Part I- Training Techniques Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning: The process in which behavioral change (i.e., learning) occurs as a function of the consequences of behavior Aspects of Reinforcers Primary Secondary Primary: Fulfills basic drive (Innately rewarding) Secondary: Everything else (Becomes rewarding aster learned association) Law of effect: Reinforcement strengthens behavior Punishment weakens behavior Shaping: An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward close and closer approximations of the desired behavior Instinctive drift: The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns Comparisons to Classical Conditioning Stimulus generalization: Responds to stimulus similar to the original one Stimulus discrimination: responds to one specific stimuli Training Techniques Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Punishment: Any event that tends to decrease the behavior that follows Consequences Strengthen behavior | Weaken behavior S Positive reinforcement: Strengthening of behavior by giving Positive punishment: Weakens the behavior by giving you something Ad something you do like you don't like Training t diti Techniques of i on Operant m Conditioning u or l u Re s Negative reinforcement: Strengthening behavior by taking away Negative punishment: Weakens behavior by taking away something m something that you don't like that you do like ov al ​ of Applications of Operant Conditioning How does operant conditioning explain superstitious Superstitious behavior occurs when consequences reinforce unrelated behaviors. This happens because there has been a punishment or a reward behavior? occurs together in time Learned helplessness: The hopelessness and passive resignation humans and other animals learn when unable to avoid repeated aversive events What implications does learned helplessness have within People could stop trying and develop mental disorders like depression society? What psychological disorder do we associate with it? It is associated with depression Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement: In operant conditioning, the reinforcement of every correct (desired response. Partial reinforcement: In operant conditioning, any pattern of reinforcement in which only some responses are reinforced Partial Reinforcement Fixed vs. Variable Interval vs. Ratio Fixed VS Variable =Predicable VS Unpredictable Interval VS Ratio = Time VS Behavior Fixed ratio: IN conditioning, an arrangement in which reinforcement is given after a specified bumper of responses. High, steady rate of response What are some examples of a fixed ratio schedule? People at factories have to produce at least 15 pens to get a certain amount of money Variable ratio: A type of intermittent reinforcement in which a response is reinforced after an unpredictable or average number of response Most resistant to extinction What are some examples of a variable ratio schedule? A machine at a casino in which slots are randomized Fixed interval: When the first response occurs after a set interval has elapsed is reinforced Moderate & erratic response rate What are some examples of a fixed interval schedule? A worker coming to work after a certain amount of time gets a weekly paycheck Variable interval: A type of interval reinforcement in which the reward is presented for the first response after a variable period has elapsed since the previous reinforcement; pt de[emdemt pm the number of responses during the intervals The number of likes on your Instagram post and want to check how many you got because initially, you don't know how many likes it has, which is What are some examples of a variable interval schedule? the reward. Label the following graphs as to which schedule of reinforcement is being demonstrated: Fixed ratio Variable ratio Fixed Interval Variable interval Looking at the graph on the bottom left, what does the Fixed Interval scalloping within the sections indicate? When reading these graphs, what indicators can you use to You can determine a schedule is fixed because it will have a lower resistance to extinction while when its variable it has a higher determine if a schedule is fixed or variable? resistance to extinction. The ratio has pauses after reinforcement yields and the interval has a steady rate without pauses When reading these graphs, how can you discern if a schedule is a ratio or interval? The ratio has faster responses in time than the interval Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning Social Learning Social learning theory: we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Vicarious conditioning: process whereby a person is more likely to have a behavior by observing another one with that behavior being reinforced and less likely to do that behavior if the person doing that behavior is punished Modeling: process of observing and imitating a specific behavior How did the Bobo Doll Study demonstrate social learning? The kid saw an adult hit the doll and when he was asked to play he hit it Cognitive Factors Insight learning: sudden realization of a solution to a problem Latent learning: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Cognitive map: mental representation of the layout of one’s environment