Introduction to Psychology PDF

preview Six Degrees of Separation “No man is an island, entire of itself.” How is that possible? Each of us is part of a rich tapestry of — John Donne social rel...

preview Six Degrees of Separation “No man is an island, entire of itself.” How is that possible? Each of us is part of a rich tapestry of — John Donne social relationships. You probably know at least dozens of peo- ple by name. Each of them knows dozens more people, who Here’s your assignment: You have been given a message and each know still more people, and so on. Thus, each social rela- the name, address, and occupation of the person who should tionship connects with many others. By following all the social receive it. The “target person” lives somewhere else on earth. links, you could reach millions of people just six “layers” out. You can move the message by e-mail, but you may send With the recent explosion in popularity of social networking it only to a first-name acquaintance. That person, in turn, sites like Blogger, Facebook, Friendster, and MySpace, our social must forward the message to a first-name acquaintance. worlds will undoubtedly expand even more. The message is to be moved in this fashion until it reaches the Our social networks strongly influence our behavior, which target person, whom the previous person must know by name. is probably why we spend so much time thinking about them. Sound impossible? Following up on the pioneering work of These topics have been the target of an immense amount of social psychologist Stanley Milgram (1967), sociologist Duncan study — too much, in fact, for us to cover in detail. Therefore, Watts asked more than 60,000 senders to use this method to this chapter is a social psychology “sampler.” We will look some forward e-mails to 18 target recipients in 13 countries. Like ways we think about social situations and the various ways in Milgram before him, Watts found that the average number of which we influence others. We hope that you will find the top- intermediaries was six (Dodds, Muhamad, & Watts, 2003). ics interesting and thought provoking. Humans in a Social Context — People, or are not under personal control): male or female, son, adoles- cent, inmate. Achieved roles are voluntarily attained by special People, Everywhere effort: spouse, teacher, scientist, bandleader, criminal. Gateway Question: How does group membership affect individual What effect does role-playing have on behavior? Roles streamline behavior? daily interactions by allowing us to anticipate what others will do. Families, teams, crowds, tribes, companies, parties, troops, bands, When a person is acting as a doctor, mother, clerk, or police offi- sects, gangs, crews, clans, communities, and nations. Participation cer, we expect certain behaviors. However, roles have a negative in various groups is a basic fact of social life. How do groups influ- side, too. Many people experience role conflicts, in which two or ence our behavior? Because you are a member of a group called more roles make conflicting demands on them. Consider, for “psychology class,” it would be wise to find out. example, a teacher who must flunk a close friend’s daughter; a Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals behave, think, and feel in social situations (that is, in the presence, actual or implied, of others) (Baron, Byrne, & Branscombe, 2007). Every day, there is a fascinating interplay between our own behav- ior and that of people around us. We are born into an organized society. Established values, expectations, and behavior patterns are present when we arrive. So too is culture, an ongoing pattern of life that is passed from one generation to the next. To appreciate the impact of culture, think about how you have been affected by language, marriage customs, concepts of ownership, and sex roles. Roles Corbis/SuperStock We all belong to many overlapping social groups, and in each we occupy a position in the structure of the group. Social roles are pat- terns of behavior expected of persons in various social positions (Breckler, Olson, & Wiggins, 2006). For instance, playing the role Roles have a powerful impact on social behavior. What kinds of behavior do you of mother, boss, or student involves different sets of behaviors and expect from your teachers? What behaviors do they expect from you? What hap- expectations. Some roles are ascribed (they are assigned to a person pens if either of you fails to match the other’s expectations? 530  Social Thinking and Social Influence 531 mother who has a full-time job; and a soccer coach whose son is on Cammann, 2003). Cohesiveness is the basis for much of the power the team but isn’t a very good athlete. Likewise, the clashing that groups exert over us. Therapy groups, businesses, sports demands of work, family, and school create role conflicts for many teams, and the like seek to increase cohesion because it helps peo- students (Hammer, Grigsby, & Woods, 1998; Senécal, Julien, & ple work together better (Craig & Kelly, 1999; Marmarosh, Holtz, Guay, 2003). Role conflicts at work (such as being a good team & Schottenbauer, 2005). player versus being a strong manager) lead to job burnout ( Jawa- har, Stone, & Kisamore, 2007) and negative health outcomes In-groups (Pomaki, Supeli, & Verhoeven, 2007). Cohesiveness is particularly strong for in-groups (groups with Survivor and other “reality” television programs have offered which a person mainly identifies). Very likely, your own in-groups an interesting, if voyeuristic, look at some of the best and worst are defined by a combination of prominent social dimensions, aspects of human behavior. However, such programs have nothing such as nationality, ethnicity, age, education, religion, income, over the most revealing experiments in social psychology. For political values, gender, sexual orientation, and so forth. In-group example, a classic study done by Phil Zimbardo and his students at membership helps define who we are socially. Predictably, we tend Stanford University showed dramatically how social settings influ- to attribute positive characteristics to our in-group and negative ence our behavior. qualities to out-groups (groups with which we do not identify). In the study, normal healthy male college students were paid to We also tend to exaggerate differences between members of out- serve as “inmates” and “guards” in a simulated prison (Zimbardo, groups and our own groups. This sort of “us-and-them” thinking Haney, & Banks, 1973). After just 2 days in “jail,” the inmates grew seems to be a basic fact of social life. It also sets the stage for con- restless and defiant. When they staged a disturbance, the guards flict between groups and for racial and ethnic prejudice — topics unmercifully suppressed the rebellion. Over the next few days, the we will explore in the next chapter. guards clamped down with increasing brutality. In a surprisingly short time, the fake convicts looked like real prisoners: They were Status dejected, traumatized, passive, and dehumanized. Four of them In addition to defining roles, a person’s social position within had to be released because they were crying, confused, or severely groups determines his or her status, or level of social power and depressed. Each day, the guards tormented the prisoners with importance. Higher status bestows special privileges and respect. more commands, insults, and demeaning tasks. After 6 days the For example, in one experiment, a man walked into a number of experiment had to be halted. bakeries and asked for a croissant while claiming he did not have What had happened? Apparently, the assigned social roles — enough money to pay for it. Half the time he was well dressed and prisoner and guard — were so powerful that in just a few days the half the time he was poorly dressed. If the man was polite when he experiment became “reality” for those involved. Afterward, it was asked, he was equally likely to be given a free croissant no matter difficult for many of the guards to believe their own behavior. As how he was dressed (95 versus 90 percent). But if he was impolite one recalls, “I was surprised at myself. I made them call each other when he asked, he was much less likely to get a croissant if he was names and clean toilets out with their bare hands. I practically poorly dressed than if he was well dressed (75 versus 20 percent) considered the prisoners cattle” (Zimbardo, Haney, & Banks, (Guéguen & Pascual, 2003). 1973). We tend to think of people as inherently good or bad. But students in the Stanford prison study were randomly assigned to be prisoners or guards. Clearly, the origins of many destructive human relationships can be found in destructive roles. Social psychology The scientific study of how individuals behave, think, and feel in social situations. Group Structure and Cohesion Culture An ongoing pattern of life, characterizing a society at a given point in history. Are there other dimensions of group membership? Two important dimensions of any group are its structure and cohesiveness (For- Social role Expected behavior patterns associated with particular social positions (such as daughter, worker, student). syth, 2006). Group structure consists of the network of roles, communication pathways, and power in a group. Organized Role conflict Trying to occupy two or more roles that make conflicting demands on behavior. groups such as an army or an athletic team have a high degree of structure. Informal friendship groups may or may not be very Group structure The network of roles, communication pathways, and power in a group. structured. Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of attraction among Group cohesiveness The degree of attraction among group members or their commitment to remaining in the group. group members or the strength of their desire to remain in the group. Members of cohesive groups literally stick together: They In-group A group with which a person identifies. tend to stand or sit close together, they pay more attention to one Out-group A group with which a person does not identify. another, and they show more signs of mutual affection. Also, their Status An individual’s position in a social structure, especially with behavior tends to be closely coordinated (Chansler, Swamidass, & respect to power, privilege, or importance. 532 CHAPTER 16 C R IT ICAL T H I N KI N G Touch and Status Pause for a moment and think about who you socioeconomic status are more likely to greater power in society, are more likely to touch during a typical day. Do you think that touch those of lower status. touch women than women are to touch men social status affects your patterns of touching Even in situations where persons touch (Major, Schmidlin, & Williams, 1990). This and being touched by others? each other equal amounts, there is an impor- difference is highly visible in most work set- It would be surprising if touching weren’t tant difference. When a person of higher sta- tings: Picture a male boss touching his female affected by status. Touch is one of the most tus touches one of lower status, the contact is secretary on the shoulder or arm to get her basic forms of communication. Its message more likely to be “personal” or familiar. When attention; she, in turn, never touches him. can be one of warmth, friendship, caring, lower-status persons touch those of higher Although women have moved toward equal nurturance, or sexual interest. Touching is status, it is more likely to be formal or imper- status with men, patterns of social touching also a “privilege” of power and high status sonal, such as a handshake (Hall, 1996; Hall, suggest that subtle inequalities in power and (Guéguen, 2002). Older persons, for instance, Coats, & LeBeau, 2005). dominance persist. are more likely to touch younger persons There is another difference worth not- than the reverse. Likewise, people of high ing. Men, by virtue of their higher status and You don’t have to be in a bakery for this to work. In most situ- 50 ations, we are more likely to comply with a request made by a high- status (well-dressed) person (Guéguen, 2002). Perhaps the better Percentage of persons who littered 40 treatment given “higher status” persons, even when they are impo- lite, explains some of our society’s preoccupation with expensive clothes, cars, and other status symbols. (For more, see “Touch and 30 Status.”) 20 Norms We are also greatly affected by group norms. A norm is a widely accepted (but often unspoken) standard for appropriate behavior. 10 If you have the slightest doubt about the power of norms, try this test: Walk into a crowded supermarket, get in a checkout line, and begin singing loudly in your fullest voice. Are you the 1 person in 1 2 4 8 100 who could actually carry out these instructions? Number of pieces of litter in environment The impact of norms is shown by an interesting study of litter- Figure 16.1 Results of an experiment on norms concerning littering. The ing. The question was, Does the amount of trash in an area affect prior existence of litter in a public setting implies that littering is acceptable. This littering? To find out, people were given flyers as they walked into encourages others to “trash” the area. (From Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990.) a public parking garage. As you can see in Figure 16.1, the more litter there was on the floor, the more likely people were to add to it by dropping their flyer. Apparently, seeing that others had gence of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors tends to take place in already littered implied a lax norm about whether littering is many groups (Crano, 2000). acceptable. The moral? The cleaner a public area is kept, the less Norms are often based on our perceptions of what others think likely people are to “trash” it (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990). and do. For example, a majority of college students believe that How are norms formed? One early study of group norms made they are more troubled about excessive drinking on campus than use of a striking illusion called the autokinetic effect. In a com- other students are. Apparently, many students are fooled by this pletely darkened room, a stationary pinpoint of light will appear false norm. Ironically, they help create this false impression by not to drift or move about. (The light is therefore autokinetic, or “self- speaking up. If disapproving students actually outnumber “party moving.”) Muzafer Sherif (1906–1988) found that people give animals,” then campus norms for acceptable drinking should be very different estimates of how far the light moves. However, fairly conservative, which is usually not the case (Prentice & when two or more people announce their estimates at the same Miller, 1993). time, their judgments rapidly converge. This is an example of social Despite the fact that we are immersed in social relationships influence, in which one person’s behavior is changed by the actions with other people all the time and can freely observe their behavior, of others (Brehm, & Kassin, & Fein, 2005). We will return to figuring out why they behave the way they do is another matter social influence later. For now, it is enough to note that a conver- entirely. In the next section we will consider a kind of impromptu  Social Thinking and Social Influence 533 detective work that we engage in as we try to guess the motives of What effects do such interpretations have? It is difficult to fully others and the causes of their actions. Let’s see how this is done. understand social behavior without considering the attributions that we make. For instance, let’s say that Tam, who is in one of your classes, seems to avoid you. You see Tam at a market. Do you say Social Cognition — Behind the Mask hello to him? It could depend on how you have explained Tam’s Gateway Question: How do we perceive the motives of others and the actions to yourself. Have you assumed his avoidance is caused by causes of our own behavior? shyness? Coincidence? Dislike? Many factors affect such judg- ments. Let’s examine a few. Every day we must guess how people will act, often from small shreds of evidence. We do this through a form of social cognition Making Attributions called attribution. As we observe others, we make inferences According to Harold Kelley (1921–2003), one of the originators about them. Vonda just insulted Sutchai. But why? Why did Nick of attribution theory, when we make attributions we are sensitive change his college major? Why does Kirti talk so fast when she’s to how consistent and distinctive a person’s behavior is (Kelley, around men? In answering such questions we attribute people’s 1967). A person’s behavior is consistent if it changes very little behavior to various causes. Whether we are right or wrong about when we observe it on many different occasions. The first time the causes of their behavior, our conclusions affect how we act. To that Tam avoided you he might have just been in a bad mood. learn how we fill in the “person behind the mask,” let’s explore the However, if Tam has consistently avoided you, it’s not likely that making of attributions. he was in a bad mood every time. That rules out coincidence. Still, Tam’s avoidance could mean he is shy, not that he dislikes you. Attribution Theory That’s why distinctiveness is also important. When we watch Two people enter a restaurant and order different meals. Nell other people, distinctiveness refers to noting that their behavior tastes her food, then salts it. Bert salts his food before he tastes it. occurs only under specific circumstances. If you notice that Tam How would you explain their behavior? In Nell’s case, you might seems to avoid other people too, you may conclude that he is shy assume that the food needed salt. If so, you have attributed her or unfriendly. If his avoidance is consistently and distinctively actions to an external cause (one that lies outside a person). With linked only with you, you will probably assume he dislikes you. Bert, you might be more inclined to conclude that he must really You could be wrong, of course, but your behavior toward him will like salt. If so, the cause of his behavior is internal. Internal causes, change just the same. such as needs, personality traits, and Bert’s taste for salt, lie within To deduce causes, we typically take into account the behavior of the person. the actor (the person of interest), the object the person’s action is directed toward, and the setting (social or physical environment) in which the action occurs (Kelley, 1967). Imagine for example, bridges that someone compliments you on your taste in clothes. If you are Attributing bodily arousal to various sources can also have a large at a picnic, you may attribute this compliment to what you are impact on emotions. See Chapter 10, page 350. wearing (the “object”), unless, of course, you’re wearing your worst “grubbies.” If you are, you may simply assume that the person (or “actor”) is friendly or tactful. However, if you are in a clothing store and a salesperson compliments you, you will probably attri- bute the compliment to the setting. It’s still possible that the sales- person actually likes what you are wearing. Nevertheless, when we make attributions we are very sensitive to the situational demands affecting other people’s behavior. Situational demands are pres- Norm A widely accepted (but often unspoken) standard of conduct for appropriate behavior. Autokinetic effect The apparent movement of a stationary pinpoint of light displayed in a darkened room. AFP/Getty Images Attribution The process of making inferences about the causes of one’s own behavior, and that of others. External cause A cause of behavior that is assumed to lie outside a In 2005, in the aftermath of hurricane Katrina, many celebrities, including actor person. Sean Penn, went to New Orleans to help hurricane victims. As you watched these Internal cause A cause of behavior assumed to lie within a person — for events, did you attribute the celebrities’ actions to selfless concern for the suffer- instance, a need, preference, or personality trait. ing in New Orleans? Or were the celebrities motivated by a selfish desire to hog the limelight? Such attributions greatly affect how we perceive and respond to Situational demands Unstated expectations that define desirable or the social behavior of others. appropriate behavior in various settings and social situations. 534 CHAPTER 16 T HE C LIN ICA L FI LE Self-Handicapping — Smoke Screen for Failure Have you ever known someone who got drunk people can avoid any chance of discovering Any time you set up excuses for a poor before taking an exam or making a speech? that they “don’t have it” (Rhodewalt, 1994)! performance, you are self-handicapping. Why would a person risk failure in this way? For instance, college athletes often protect Other examples of self-handicapping include Often, the reason lies in self-handicapping their self-esteem by practicing less before making a half-hearted effort, claiming to be (arranging to perform under conditions that important games or events (Bailis, 2001; ill, and procrastinating (Urdan & Midgley, impair performance). By providing an excuse Kuczka & Treasure, 2005). That way, if they 2001). Incidentally, men are more likely than for poor performance, self-handicapping don’t do well, they have an excuse for their women to self-handicap (Kimble & Hirt, makes people feel better in situations where poor performance. 2005). they might fail (Kimble & Hirt, 2005). Drinking alcohol is one of the most pop- Most of us have used self-handicapping What if a person succeeds while “handi- ular — and dangerous — self-handicapping at times. Indeed, life would be harsh if we capped”? Well, then, so much the better. strategies. A person who is drunk can attri- didn’t sometimes give ourselves a break from The person’s self-image then gets a boost bute failure to being “loaded,” while accept- accepting full responsibility for success or because she or he succeeded under con- ing success if it occurs. Examples of using failure. Self-handicapping is mainly a prob- ditions that normally lower performance alcohol for self-handicapping include being lem when it becomes habitual. When it does, (Murray & Warden, 1992). drunk for school exams, job interviews, or an it typically leads to lower self-esteem, poor Do you believe that “you either have it important first date. A person who gets drunk adjustment, and poor health (Zuckerman, or you don’t” where ability is concerned? at such times should be aware that coping Kieffer, & Knee, 1998; Zuckerman & Tsai, If so, you may be particularly prone to self- with anxiety in this way can lead to serious 2005). So, watch out for self-handicapping, handicapping. By working with a handicap, alcohol abuse (Zuckerman & Tsai, 2005). but try not to be too hard on yourself. sures to behave in certain ways in particular settings and social she seems to like parties. She says, “Actually, I hate these parties, situations. If you see Tam at a funeral and he is quiet and polite, it but I get invited to play my tuba at them. My music teacher says I will tell you little about his motives and personality traits. The need to practice in front of an audience, so I keep attending these situation demands such behavior. dumb events. Want to hear a Sousa march?” When situational demands are strong, we tend to discount We seldom know the real reasons for others’ actions. That is (downgrade) internal causes as a way of explaining a person’s why we tend to infer causes from circumstances. However, in doing behavior. Actually, this is true anytime strong external causes for so, we often make mistakes like the one with Macy. The most com- behavior are present. For example, you have probably discounted the motives of professional athletes who praise shaving creams, hair tonics, deodorants, and the like. Obviously, the large sums of money they receive fully explain their endorsements. It’s not nec- essary to assume they actually like the potions they sell. (“Self- Handicapping — Smoke Screen for Failure” discusses a related phenomenon.) Fox Searchlight/The Kobal Collection/Davidson, Neil Yet another factor affecting attribution is consensus (or agree- ment). When many people act alike (there is a consensus in their behavior), it implies that their behavior is externally caused. For example, if millions of people go to see the latest Hollywood blockbuster, we tend to say the movie is good. If someone you know goes to see a movie six times, when others are staying away in droves, the tendency is to assume that the person likes “that type of movie.” Forest Whitaker won an Academy Award for his portrayal of dictator Idi Amin Actor and Observer in the film The Last King of Scotland. Is Forest Whitaker a ruthless person, or did he portray ruthlessness as a part of his role? According to Tal-Or and Papirman Let’s say that at the last five parties you’ve been to, you’ve seen a (2007), we are prone to attribute actors’ screen actions to their personalities woman named Macy. Based on this, you assume that Macy likes to rather than to the personalities of the roles they are playing. Why do you think socialize. You see Macy at yet another gathering and mention that this occurs?  Social Thinking and Social Influence 535 mon error is to attribute the actions of others to internal causes Have you ever engaged in self-handicapping? Try to relate the con- (Follett & Hess, 2002; Jones & Nisbett, 1971). This mistake is cept to a specific example. called the fundamental attribution error. We tend to think the How often do you commit the fundamental attribution error? Again, actions of others have internal causes even if they are actually try to think of a specific personal example that illustrates the concept. caused by external forces or circumstances. One amusing example rapidly. could cause a stationary light to look like it is flying or changing direction of this error is the tendency of people to attribute the actions of night sky may appear to move because of the autokinetic effect. This actors in television programs to the personality of the actor rather by situations rather than by personal traits. 9. Any point of light in the than the obvious external cause (that they are playing a character) 4. F 5. F 6. T 7. T 8. It is the idea that behavior is often strongly influenced (Tal-Or & Papirman, 2007). Answers: 1. T 2. social situations or the presence of others 3. ascribed Where our own behavior is concerned, we are more likely to think that external causes explain our actions. In other words, there is an actor–observer bias in how we explain behavior. As observers, we attribute the behavior of others to their wants, motives, and personality traits (this is the fundamental attribution Attitudes — Belief ⴙ Emotion ⴙ Action error). As actors, we tend to find external explanations for our own Gateway Questions: What are attitudes? How are they acquired? behavior (Gordon & Kaplar, 2002). No doubt you chose your What is your attitude toward affirmative action, euthanasia, envi- major in school because of what it has to offer. Other students ronmental groups, the death penalty, legalized abortion, junk food, choose their majors because of the kind of people they are. Other psychology? Your answers, which are often influenced by social people who don’t leave tips in restaurants are cheapskates. If you situations, can have far-reaching effects on your behavior. Attitudes don’t leave a tip, it’s because the service was bad. And, of course, are intimately woven into our actions and views of the world. Our other people are always late because they are irresponsible. You are tastes, friendships, votes, preferences, goals, and behavior in many late because you were held up by events beyond your control. other situations are all touched by attitudes (Baumeister & Bush- As you can see, attribution theory summarizes how we think man, 2008). Let’s see how attitudes are formed and changed. about ourselves and others, including the errors we tend to make. What specifically is an attitude? An attitude is a mixture of belief and emotion that predisposes a person to respond to other people, objects, or institutions in a positive or negative way. Atti- tudes summarize your evaluation of objects (Oskamp & Schultz, K N O W L E D GE B U I L D E R 2005). As a result, they predict or direct future actions. For example, an approach known as the misdirected letter tech- Social Behavior and Attribution nique shows how actions are closely linked to attitudes. During a RECITE period of violence in Northern Ireland, attitudes toward the Irish 1. Research has shown that the number of first-name acquaintances needed to interconnect two widely separated strangers averages were measured in a sample of English households. Later, wrongly about six people. T or F? addressed letters were sent to the same households. Each letter had 2. Social psychology is the study of how people behave in either an English name or an Irish name on it. The question was: _____________________________________________. Would the “Irish” letters be returned to the post office or thrown 3. Male, female, and adolescent are examples of __________________ roles. away? As predicted, letters were more often thrown away by peo- 4. The Stanford prison experiment demonstrated the powerful influ- ple living in households where anti-Irish attitudes had been mea- ence of the autokinetic effect on behavior. T or F? sured earlier (Howitt et al., 1977). 5. Status refers to a set of expected behaviors associated with a social “Your attitude is showing,” is sometimes said. Actually, atti- position. T or F? 6. When situational demands are weak, we tend to attribute a person’s tudes are expressed through beliefs, emotions, and actions. The actions to internal causes. T or F? belief component of an attitude is what you believe about a par- 7. The fundamental attribution error is to attribute the actions of oth- ers to internal causes. T or F? REFLECT Self-handicapping Arranging to perform under conditions that usually Critical Thinking impair performance, so as to have an excuse for a poor showing. 8. The Stanford prison experiment also illustrates a major concept of personality theory (Chapter 12), especially social learning theory. Fundamental attribution error The tendency to attribute the Can you name it? behavior of others to internal causes (personality, likes, and so forth). 9. How could the autokinetic effect contribute to UFO sightings? Actor–observer bias The tendency to attribute the behavior of others Relate to internal causes while attributing one’s own behavior to external What are the most prominent roles you play? Which are achieved and causes (situations and circumstances). which are ascribed? How do they affect your behavior? What conflicts do Attitude A learned tendency to respond to people, objects, or they create? institutions in a positive or negative way. Think of a time when your attributions were affected by consistency and distinctiveness. Did situational demands also affect your judgments? Belief component What a person thinks or believes about the object of an attitude. 536 CHAPTER 16 Figure 16.2 Elements of Issue: Affirmative Action positive and negative attitudes toward affirmative action. Belief component Belief component Restores justice Unfair to majority Provides equal opportunity Reverse discrimination Emotional component Optimism + – Emotional component Anger Action component Action component Vote for affirmative action Vote against affirmative action Donate to groups that support Donate to groups that oppose affirmative action affirmative action ticular object or issue. The emotional component consists of your conditioning (learning that takes place by chance or coincidence) feelings toward the attitudinal object. The action component (Olson & Zanna, 1993). Let’s say, for instance, that you have had refers to your actions toward various people, objects, or institu- three encounters in your lifetime with psychologists. If all three tions. Consider, for example, your attitude toward gun control. were negative, you might take an unduly dim view of psychology. You will have beliefs about whether gun control would affect rates In the same way, people often develop strong attitudes toward cit- of crime or violence. You will respond emotionally to guns, finding ies, foods, or parts of the country on the basis of one or two unusu- them either attractive and desirable or threatening and destructive. ally good or bad experiences. And you will have a tendency to seek out or avoid gun ownership. Attitudes are also learned through interaction with others; that The action component of your attitude may well include support is, through discussion with people holding a particular attitude. of organizations that urge or oppose gun control. As you can see, For instance, if three of your good friends are volunteers at a local attitudes orient us to the social world. In doing so, they prepare us recycling center and you talk with them about their beliefs, you to act in certain ways (Albarracín, Johnson, & Zanna, 2005). (For may well come to favor recycling, too. More generally, there is lit- another example, see Figure 16.2.) tle doubt that many of our attitudes are influenced by group mem- bership. In most groups, pressures to conform shape our attitudes, Forming Attitudes just as they do our behavior. Child rearing (the effects of parental How do people acquire attitudes? Attitudes are acquired in several values, beliefs, and practices) also affects attitudes (Bartram, 2006). basic ways. Sometimes, attitudes come from direct contact (per- For example, if both parents belong to the same political party, sonal experience) with the object of the attitude — such as oppos- chances are that their children will belong to that party as adults. ing pollution when a nearby factory ruins your favorite river Finally, there can be no doubt that attitudes are influenced by (Ajzen, 2005). Some attitudes are simply formed through chance the media, such as newspapers, television, and the Internet. Every day we are coaxed, persuaded, and skillfully manipulated by mes- sages in mass media. Consider, for example, the impact of televi- sion. Ninety-nine percent of North American homes have a televi- sion set, which is on an average of more than 7 hours a day (Steuer & Hustedt, 2002). The information thus channeled into homes has a powerful impact. For instance, frequent viewers mistrust others and overestimate their own chances of being harmed. This suggests that a steady diet of TV violence leads some people to develop a mean worldview, in which they regard the world as a dangerous and threatening place (Eschholz, Chiricos, & Gertz, 2003). Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit Attitudes and Behavior Why are some attitudes acted on, whereas others are not? To answer this question, let’s consider an example. Assume that a woman named Lorraine knows that automobiles are expensive to operate Attitudes are an important dimension of social behavior. They are often greatly and add to air pollution, and she hates smog. Why would Lorraine influenced by the groups to which we belong. continue to drive to work every day? Probably it is because the  Social Thinking and Social Influence 537 of social closeness. These levels range from “would exclude from my country” to “would admit to marriage in my family.” If a person © Lynn Johnston Productions, Inc. Distributed by United Feature Syndicate, Inc. All Rights Revserved. is prejudiced toward a group, she or he will prefer to remain socially distant from members of the group (Cover, 1995). Attitude scales are a widely used measure. Attitude scales con- sist of statements expressing various possible views on an issue (for example, “Socialized medicine would destroy health care in this country,” or “This country needs a national health care program”). People typically respond to such statements on a 5-point scale, ranking it from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.” By combin- ing scores on all items, we can learn if a person accepts or rejects a particular issue. When used in public polls, attitude scales provide useful information about the feelings of large segments of the population. Attitude Change — Why the Seekers Went Public Gateway Questions: Under what conditions is persuasion most effective? What is cognitive dissonance? Although attitudes are fairly stable, they do change. Some atti- tude change can be understood in terms of reference groups immediate consequences of our actions weigh heavily on the choices (any group an individual uses as a standard for social compari- we make. No matter what Lorraine’s attitude may be, it is difficult son). It is not necessary to have face-to-face contact with other for her to resist the immediate convenience of driving. Our expec- people for them to be a reference group. It depends instead on tations of how others will evaluate our actions are also important. whom you identify with or whose attitudes and values you care Lorraine may resist taking public transit to work for fear that her about (Ajzen, 2005). coworkers will be critical of her environmental stand. By taking In the 1930s, Theodore Newcomb studied real-life attitude this factor into account, researchers have been able to predict fam- change among students at Bennington College (Alwin, Cohen, & ily planning choices, alcohol use by teenagers, re-enlistment in the Newcomb, 1991). Most students came from conservative homes, National Guard, voting on a nuclear power plant initiative, and so but Bennington was a very liberal school. Newcomb found that forth (Cialdini, 2001). Finally, we must not overlook the effects of most students shifted significantly toward more liberal attitudes long-standing habits (Oskamp & Schultz, 2005). Let’s say that during their 4 years at Bennington. Those who didn’t change kept after years of driving to work Lorraine finally vows to shift to pub- their parents and hometown friends as primary reference groups. lic transit. Two months later it would not be unusual if she found This is typified by a student who said, “I decided I’d rather stick to herself driving again because of habit despite her good intentions. my father’s ideas.” Those who did change identified primarily with In short, there are often large differences between attitudes and the campus community. Notice that all students could count the behavior — particularly between privately held attitudes and pub- lic behavior. However, barriers to action typically fall when a per- son holds an attitude with conviction. If you have conviction about an issue, it evokes strong feelings, you think about it and discuss it Emotional component One’s feelings toward the object of an attitude. often, and you are knowledgeable about it. Attitudes held with Action component How one tends to act toward the object of an passionate conviction often lead to major changes in personal attitude. behavior (Oskamp & Schultz, 2005). Conviction Beliefs that are important to a person and that evoke strong emotion. Attitude Measurement Open-ended interview An interview in which persons are allowed to How are attitudes measured? Attitudes can be measured several freely state their views. ways. In an open-ended interview, people are asked to freely Social distance scale A rating of the degree to which a person would express their attitudes toward a particular issue. For example, a be willing to have contact with a member of another group. person might be asked, “What do you think about freedom of Attitude scale A collection of attitudinal statements with which speech on college campuses?” Attitudes toward social groups can respondents indicate agreement or disagreement. be measured with a social distance scale. On such scales people say Reference group Any group that an individual identifies with and uses how willing they are to admit members of a group to various levels as a standard for social comparison. 538 CHAPTER 16 nearby, for instance). Whom should you choose to make the pre- sentation, and how should that person present it? Research sug- gests that attitude change is encouraged when the following condi- tions are met. You should have little trouble seeing how these Bob Llewellen/Pictor International Ltd./Jupiterimages principles are applied to sell everything from underarm deodor- ants to presidents: 1. The communicator is likable, expressive, trustworthy, an expert on the topic, and similar to the audience in some respect. 2. The communicator appears to have nothing to gain if the audience accepts the message. 3. The message appeals to emotions, particularly to fear or anxiety. Do you exercise regularly? Like students in the Bennington study, your inten- 4. The message also provides a clear course of action that will, if tions to exercise are probably influenced by the exercise habits of your reference followed, reduce fear or produce personally desirable results. groups (Terry & Hogg, 1996). 5. The message states clear-cut conclusions. 6. The message is backed up by facts and statistics. 7. The message is repeated as frequently as possible college and their families as membership groups. However, one 8. Both sides of the argument are presented in the case of a well- group or the other tended to become their point of reference. informed audience. 9. Only one side of the argument is presented in the case of a Persuasion poorly informed audience. What about advertising and other direct attempts to change atti- tudes? Are they effective? Persuasion is any deliberate attempt to (Aronson, 1992; Oskamp & Schultz, 2005). change attitudes or beliefs through information and arguments As we have just seen, we sometimes change our attitudes in (Brock & Green, 2005). Businesses, politicians, and others who response to external persuasion (Gass & Seiter, 2007). Sometimes, seek to persuade us obviously believe that attitudes can be changed. however, the internal process of cognitive dissonance can also lead More than a hundred billion dollars are spent yearly on television to attitude change. advertising in the United States and Canada alone. Persuasion can range from the daily blitz of media commercials to personal dis- Cognitive Dissonance Theory cussion among friends. In most cases, the success or failure of persuasion can be understood if we consider the communicator, the What happens if people act in ways that are inconsistent with their message, and the audience. attitudes or self-images? Cognitions are thoughts. Dissonance At a community meeting, let’s say you have a chance to pro- means clashing. The influential theory of cognitive dissonance mote an issue important to you (for or against building a new mall states that contradicting or clashing thoughts cause discomfort. That is, we have a need for consistency in our thoughts, perceptions, and images of ourselves (Cooper, Mirabile, & Scher, 2005; Festinger, 1957). Inconsistency, then, can motivate people to make their thoughts or attitudes agree with their actions (Oskamp & Schultz, 2005). For example, smokers are told on every pack that cigarettes endanger their lives. They light up and smoke anyway. How do they resolve the tension between this information and their actions? They could quit smoking, but it may be easier to convince Maria Bastone/AFP/Getty Images themselves that smoking is not really so dangerous. To do this, a smoker might seek examples of heavy smokers who have lived long lives, spend time with other smokers, and avoid information about the link between smoking and cancer. According to cognitive dis- sonance theory, we also tend to reject new information that con- tradicts ideas we already hold. We’re all guilty of this “don’t bother Persuasion. Would you be likely to be swayed by this group’s message? me with the facts, my mind is made up” strategy at times. Successful persuasion is related to characteristics of the communicator, the mes- A famous example of cognitive dissonance in action involves a sage, and the audience. woman named Mrs. Keech, who claimed she was in communica-  Social Thinking and Social Influence 539 tion with beings on a planet called Clarion (Festinger, 1957). The True State Task was dull. messages foretold the destruction of North America. Mrs. Keech of Affairs and her followers, the Seekers, were to be rescued by a flying sau- cer. The news media became involved and reported on the pro- Conflicting "I told others that the task ceedings. When nothing happened, the Seekers suffered a bitter Behavior was interesting." and embarrassing disappointment. Did the group break up then? Amazingly, instead of breaking up, Dissonance "I wouldn't lie for $1." the Seekers became more convinced than ever before that they Aroused (Action not justified by payment.) were right. Mrs. Keech announced that she had received a new message explaining that the Seekers had saved the world. Before, Result Change attitude: "I didn't lie; the task really was interesting." the Seekers were uninterested in persuading other people that the world was coming to an end. Now they called newspapers and radio stations to convince others of their accomplishment. Dissonance reduced. Why did their belief in Mrs. Keech’s messages increase after the world failed to end? Why did the group suddenly become inter- Figure 16.3 Summary of the Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) study from the ested in convincing others that they were right? Cognitive disso- viewpoint of a person experiencing cognitive dissonance. nance theory explains that after publicly committing themselves to their beliefs, they had a strong need to maintain consistency (Tavris & Aronson, 2007). In effect, convincing others was a way she’s not undependable, she’s a free spirit; and so on (Murray & of adding proof that they were correct ( Table 16.1). Holmes, 1993). Cognitive dissonance also underlies attempts to convince Making choices often causes dissonance. This is especially true ourselves that we’ve done the right thing. Here’s an example you if a rejected alternative seems better than the one selected. To may recognize: As romantic partners become better acquainted, minimize such dissonance, we tend to emphasize positive aspects they sooner or later begin to notice things they don’t like about of what we choose, while downgrading other alternatives. Thus, each other. How do they reduce the cognitive dissonance and college students are more likely to think their courses will be good doubts caused by their partners’ shortcomings? Basically, they after they have registered than they did before making a commit- create stories that change their partners’ faults into virtues: He ment (Rosenfeld, Giacalone, & Tedeschi, 1983). seems cheap, but he’s really frugal; she seems egotistical, but she’s Acting contrary to one’s attitudes doesn’t always bring about really self-confident; he’s not stubborn, he just has integrity; change. How does cognitive dissonance explain that? The amount of justification for acting contrary to your attitudes and beliefs affects how much dissonance you feel. (Justification is the degree to which a person’s actions are explained by rewards or other circum- Table 16.1 Strategies for Reducing Cognitive Dissonance stances.) In a classic study, college students did an extremely bor- LeShawn, who is a college student, has always thought of himself as an ing task (turning wooden pegs on a board) for a long time. After- environmental activist. Recently, LeShawn “inherited” a car from his par- ward, they were asked to help lure others into the experiment by ents, who were replacing the family “barge.” In the past, LeShawn biked or used public transportation to get around. His parents’ old car is an anti- pretending that the task was interesting and enjoyable. Students quated gas-guzzler, but he has begun to drive it every day. How might paid $20 for lying to others did not change their own negative LeShawn reduce the cognitive dissonance created by the clash between opinion of the task: “That was really boring!” Those who were his environmentalism and his use of an inefficient automobile? paid only $1 later rated the task as “pleasant” and “interesting.” Strategy Example How can we explain these results? Apparently, students paid $20 Change your attitude “Cars are not really a major environmental experienced no dissonance. These students could reassure them- problem.” selves that anybody would tell a little white lie for $20. Those paid Add consonant “This is an old car, so keeping it on the road $1 were faced with the conflicting thoughts: “I lied” and “ I had no thoughts makes good use of the resources consumed good reason to do it.” Rather than admit to themselves that they when it was manufactured.” had lied, these students changed their attitude toward what they Change the impor- “It’s more important for me to support the envi- had done (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959) ( Figure 16.3). tance of the dissonant ronmental movement politically than it is to thoughts worry about how I get to school and work.” Reduce the amount of “My schedule has become too hectic. I really perceived choice can’t afford to bike or take the bus anymore.” Persuasion A deliberate attempt to change attitudes or beliefs with Change your behavior “I’m only going to use the car when it’s impos- information and arguments. sible to bike or take the bus.” Cognitive dissonance An uncomfortable clash between self-image, After Franzoi, 2002. thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or perceptions and one’s behavior. 540 CHAPTER 16 K NOW LED GE B U I L D E R also stopped to stare. The larger the influencing group, the more people were swayed to join in staring at the window (Milgram, Attitudes and Attitude Change Bickman, & Berkowitz, 1969). RECITE Are there different kinds of social influence? Social influence 1. Attitudes have three parts, a ___________________ component, an ___________________ component, and an ___________________ ranges from milder to stronger. The gentlest form of social influ- component. ence is mere presence (changing behavior just because other people 2. Which of the following is associated with attitude formation? are nearby). We conform when we spontaneously change our a. group membership behavior to bring it into agreement with others. Compliance is a b. mass media c. chance conditioning more directed form of social influence. We comply when we change d. child rearing our behavior in response to another person who has little or no e. all of the preceding social power, or authority. Obedience is an even stronger form of f. a and d only social influence. We obey when we change our behavior in direct 3. Because of the immediate consequences of actions, behavior con- trary to one’s stated attitudes is often enacted. T or F? response to the demands of an authority. The strongest form of 4. Items such as “would exclude from my country” or “would admit to social influence is coercion (changing behavior because you are marriage in my family” are found in which attitude measure? forced to). Daily behavior is probably most influenced by group a. a reference group scale pressures for conformity (Baron, Byrne, & Branscombe, 2007). b. a social distance scale c. an attitude scale d. an open-ended interview 5. In presenting a persuasive message, it is best to give both sides of the Social Power argument if the audience is already well informed on the topic. T or F? The people we encounter on any given day vary in their power to 6. Much attitude change is related to a desire to avoid clashing or con- tradictory thoughts, an idea summarized by ____________________ influence us. Here’s something to think about: Strength is a qual- _____________________ theory. ity possessed by individuals; power is always social — it arises when people come together and disappears when they disperse. In trying REFLECT to understand the ways in which people are able to influence each Critical Thinking other, it is helpful to distinguish among five types of social power 7. Students entering a college gym are asked to sign a banner promot- ing water conservation. Later, the students shower at the gym. What (the capacity to control, alter, or influence the behavior of another effect would you expect signing the banner to have on how long person) (Raven, 1974): students stay in the showers? Reward power lies in the ability to reward a person for com- Relate Describe an attitude that is important to you. What are its three plying with desired behavior. Teachers try to exert reward components? power over students with grades. Employers command Which of the various sources of attitudes best explain your own reward power by their control of wages and bonuses. attitudes? Who belongs to your most important reference group? Coercive power is based on an ability to punish a person for Imagine that you would like to persuade voters to support an initia- failure to comply. Coercive power is the basis for most laws, tive to preserve a small wilderness area by converting it to a park. Using in that fines or imprisonment are used to control behavior. research on persuasion as a guide, what could you do to be more effective? Legitimate power comes from accepting a person as an agent How would you explain cognitive dissonance theory to a person who knows nothing about it? of an established social order. For example, elected leaders observed in a study done by social psychologist Elliot Aronson. and supervisors have legitimate power. So does a teacher licly expressed support of water conservation. This is exactly the result in the classroom. Outside the classroom that power would the banner will take shorter showers, to be consistent with their pub- have to come from another source. sonance 7. Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that students who sign Answers: 1. belief, emotional, action 2. e 3. T 4. b 5. T 6. cognitive dis- Referent power is based on respect for or identification with a person or a group. The person “refers to” the source of refer- ent power for direction. Referent power is responsible for much of the conformity we see in groups. Expert power is based on recognition that another person has Social Influence — Follow the Leader knowledge necessary for achieving a goal. We allow teach- Gateway Question: What is social influence and social power? ers, lawyers, and other experts to guide behavior because of their ability to produce desired results. Physicians, psychol- No topic lies nearer the heart of social psychology than social ogists, programmers, and plumbers have expert power. influence (changes in behavior induced by the actions of others). When people interact, they almost always affect one another’s A person who has power in one situation may have very little in behavior (Crano, 2000; Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2008). For exam- another. In those situations where a person has power, she or he is ple, in a sidewalk experiment, various numbers of people stood on described as an authority. Regardless of whether or not the people a busy New York City street. On cue they all looked at a sixth-floor around you are authorities, friends, or strangers, their mere pres- window across the street. A camera recorded how many passersby ence is likely to influence your behavior.  Social Thinking and Social Influence 541 Mere Presence — Just Because You Are There Gateway Question: How does the mere presence of others affect behavior? Suppose you just happened to be alone in a room, picking your nose. (We know, none of us would do that, right?) Would you continue if a stranger entered the room? Mere presence refers to the tendency for people to change their behavior just because of Stockbyte/Getty Images the presence of other people. Let’s explore some of the ways mere presence can induce us to modify our behavior. Social Facilitation and Loafing Imagine you are out riding your mountain bike when another The use of space in public places is governed by unspoken norms, or “rules,” about what is appropriate. rider pulls up beside you. Will you pick up your pace? Slow down? Completely ignore the other rider? In 1898, psychologist Norman Triplett’s investigation of just such a social situation was the first also illustrated by the fact that many train commuters prefer to published social psychology experiment (Strubbe, 2005). Accord- stand up if it means they can avoid sitting too close to strangers ing to Triplett, you are more likely to speed up. This is social (Evans & Wener, 2007). The systematic study of norms con- facilitation, the tendency to perform better when in the presence cerning the use of personal space is called proxemics (prok- of others. SEE-miks) (Harrigan, 2005). Such norms may explain why Does mere presence always improve performance? No. If you people who feel offended by another person sometimes say, are confident in your abilities, your behavior will most likely be “Get out of my face. facilitated in the presence of others. If you are not, then your Would approaching “too close” work with a good friend? Possibly performance is more likely to be impaired (Uziel, 2007). not. Norms governing comfortable or acceptable distances vary Another classic study focused on college students shooting pool according to relationships as well as activities. Hall (1966) identi- at a student union. Good players who were confident (sharks?) fied four basic zones: intimate, personal, social, and public distance normally made 71% of their shots. Their accuracy improved to ( Figure 16.4). 80% when they were being watched by others. Less confident, average players (marks?) who normally made 36% of their shots dropped to 25% accuracy when someone was watching them Social influence Changes in a person’s behavior induced by the (Michaels et al., 1982). presence or actions of others. Social loafing is another consequence of having other people Social power The capacity to control, alter, or influence the behavior of nearby. People tend to work less hard (loaf ) when they are part of another person. a group than they do when they are solely responsible for their Reward power Social power based on the capacity to reward a person work. In one study, people playing tug-of-war while blindfolded for acting as desired. pulled harder if they thought they were competing alone. When Coercive power Social power based on the ability to punish others. they thought others were on their team, they made less of an effort Legitimate power Social power based on a person’s position as an (Ingham et al., 1974). agent of an accepted social order. Referent power Social power gained when one is used as a point of Personal Space reference by others. The next time you are talking with an acquaintance, move in Expert power Social power derived from possession of knowledge or closer and watch the reaction. Most people show signs of discom- expertise. fort and step back to re-establish their original distance. Those Mere presence The tendency for people to change their behavior just who hold their ground may turn to the side, look away, or posi- because of the presence of other people. tion an arm in front of themselves as a barrier. If you persistently Social facilitation The tendency to perform better when in the edge toward your subjects, it should be easy to move them back presence of others. several feet. Social loafing The tendency of people to work less hard when part of a In this case, your mere (and close) presence amounted to an group than when they are solely responsible for their work. invasion of that person’s personal space, an area surrounding Personal space An area surrounding the body that is regarded as the body that is regarded as private and subject to personal con- private and subject to personal control. trol. Basically, personal space extends “I” or “me” boundaries Proxemics Systematic study of the human use of space, particularly in past the skin to the immediate environment. Personal space is social settings. 542 CHAPTER 16 Intimate Personal Social Public (0–1.5) (1.5–4) (4–12) (12+) Figure 16.4 Typical spatial zones (in feet) for face-to-face interactions in North America. Often, we must stand within intimate distance of others in crowds, buses, subways, elevators, and other public places. At such times, privacy is maintained by avoiding eye contact, by standing shoulder-to-shoulder or back-to- back, and by positioning a purse, bag, package, or coat as a barrier to spatial intrusions. Spatial Norms keeps moving back. This can lead to misunderstandings in which Cultural differences also affect spatial norms. In many Middle East- one person feels that the other is being too familiar at the same ern countries, people hold their faces only inches apart while talk- time as the person moving closer feels rejected (Beaulieu, 2004). ing. In Western Europe, the English sit closer together when con- Whereas mere presence can influence our behavior in a variety versing than the French do. The Dutch, on the other hand, sit of ways, conformity involves a more specific response to the pres- farther apart than the French (Remland, Jones, & Brinkman, 1991). ence of others. In many parts of the world, merely crossing a border can dramati- cally change spatial behavior (Beaulieu, 2004). The distances listed below apply to face-to-face interactions in North America: Conformity — Don’t Stand Out 1. Intimate distance. For the majority of people, the most Gateway Question: What have social psychologists learned about private and exclusive space extends about 18 inches out from conformity? the skin. Entry within this space (face to face) is reserved for We conform when we bring our behavior into agreement with the special people or special circumstances. Lovemaking, com- actions, norms, or values of others in the absence of any direct forting others, and cuddling children all take pla