Contemporary World: 1st Semester Midterms PDF

**MODULE NO. 1** **TOPIC 1: Why Contemporary World?** **A.** We are living in different circumstances and ideas of the present age in a colloquial "in modern times like these." **B.** We need to look at the situation which considers the past and future; our cultural way of life and at the same ti...

**MODULE NO. 1** **TOPIC 1: Why Contemporary World?** **A.** We are living in different circumstances and ideas of the present age in a colloquial "in modern times like these." **B.** We need to look at the situation which considers the past and future; our cultural way of life and at the same time understanding the world of having diversity. **C.** Since our world is diverse, we practice what anthropologist call as "**Cultural Relativism**;" this is to understand diverse culture and the uniqueness of one's culture without prejudice and biases. **D.** Economic and technological advances are characteristics of the contemporary world and therefore are fundamental aspects of it. **Different Debates About Globalization** **-**There are different issues about globalization that most people would debate about like the issue of global governance. This aspect of globalization resonance with the stability of government of each state. Other issues are equitable development among nations and countries around the world and how humans will survive in the future which is crucial in maintaining sustainability of world's resources like food security and energy resources. **Defining Globalization** **-**One of the most important challenges facing the world in the 21^st^ century is globalization; to look at the concept if "Globalization" it is generally defined as the increasing interconnectedness of people and places through converging economic, political and cultural activities. **Attributes of Globalization** **A.** Global communication system that link all regions and most people on the planet instantaneously. **B.** Transportation systems capable of moving goods quickly by air, sea and land; **C.** Transnational business strategies that have created global corporations more powerful than many sovereign nations; **D.** New and more flexible forms of capital accumulations and international institutions that make 24-hour trading possible; **E.** Global agreements that promote free trade; **F.** Market economies and private enterprises that have replaced state-controlled economies and services; **G.** An abundance of planetary goods and services that have arisen to fulfill consumer demand -- real and imagined; **H.** Economic disparities between rich and poor regions and countries that drive people to migrate, both legally and illegally, in search of a better life; **I.** An army of international workers, managers, and executives who give this powerful economic force a human dimension. **TOPIC 2: Metaphors of Globalization** -The metaphors of globalization describe the process of globalization and how these phenomena can be best articulated. In general, it is described in two opposing poles -- the solid and liquid, and how it flows. **Solid and Liquid** *[Solidity]* refers to the barriers that prevent or make difficult the movement of things. Furthermore, solids can either be natural or man-made. *[Liquidity]* refers to the increasing ease of movement of people, things, information, and places in the contemporary world. Liquid phenomena change quickly and their aspects, spatial and temporal, are in continuous fluctuation. Space and time are crucial elements of globalization. **Flows** Flows is the movement of people, things, places, and information brought by the growing "porosity" of global limitations (Ritzer, 2015). As Landler (2008) put it: "in the global financial system, national borers are porous." This means that a financial crisis in a given country can bring ramifications to other regions in the world. **Defining Globalization** A. The term globalization first appeared in Webster's Dictionary in 1961; it I then classified as either (1) broad and inclusive or (2) narrow and exclusive; B. Ohmae (1992) stated that "globalization means onset of the borderless world" -- an example of a broad and inclusive type of definition C. Robert Cox's definition is narrow and exclusive -- "the characteristics of globalization trend include the internationalizing of production, the new international division of labor, new migratory movements from South to North, the new competitive environment that accelerates these processes, and the internationalizing of the state.. Making states into agencies of the globalizing world D. (NOT ACCURATE FOR THE PRESENTATION SCREEN WAS CUT) Recent definition by Ritzer (2015) -- "*globalization is a transplanetary process or a set of processes involving increasingly fluidity and growing multidirectional flows of people, places, and information as well as the structures they encounter and create that are barriers to, or expedite, those flows;"* this assumes that globalization could bring either or both integration and/or fragmentation (?); although things flow easily in a global world, hindrances or structural blocks are also present, these blocks could slow down one's activity in another country or could even hit (?) the places a person can visit. **TOPIC 3: Globalization Theories** -Globalization as a process increases either homogeneity or heterogeneity. **Homogeneity --** refers to the increasing sameness in the world as a cultural inputs, economic factors and political orientations of societies expand to create common practices, same economies, and similar forms of government. Homogeneity in culture is often linked to cultural imperialism. This means, a given culture influences other cultures. -This will be opposed by the fact that it is not possible for the world to be homogenized. The world will remain heterogenous because Western Culture (seen as the uniting driving force for Homogeneity) did not dominate all or most nations. An example of this is in the Philippines, where the once dominant McDonald food chain (a Western aspect) was eventually replaced in terms of hegemony by the domestic food chain Jollibee. \- Cultural imperialism (example McDonaldization) -In homogeneity, a given culture influences other cultures. A good example is Americanization through global economy that brought American products, ideas, images, practices and behavior to the world. This process also spread ideologies like capitalism, neoliberalism and the market economy in the world. The political realm also suffers homogenization if one takes into account the emerging similar models of governance in the world. **The McDonaldization of Society** **-**Ritzer (2008) claimed that, in general, the contemporary world is undergoing the process of McDonaldization. It is a process by which Western societies are dominated by the principles of fast-food restaurants. It involves the global spread of rational systems, such as efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control. **Heterogeneity** **-**Pertains to the creation of various cultural practices, new economies, and political groups because of the interaction of elements from different societies in the world. Heterogeneity refers to the differences because of either lasting differences or of the hybrids or combinations of cultures that can produced through the different transplanetary processes. Contrary to cultural imperialism, heterogeneity in culture is associated with cultural hybridization. -Contrary to cultural imperialism, heterogeneity in culture is associated with cultural hybridization. A more specific is "**glocalization**" coined by Roland Robertson (1992). It explains that as global forces interact with local factors or a specific geographical area, the "glocal" (global + local) is being produced. This is not only happening in culture but also in economic issues and in political institutions. **TOPIC 4: Dynamics of Local and Global Culture** **-** Global flows of culture tend to move more easily around the globe than ever before, especially through non-material digital forms. There are three perspectives on global cultural flows. These **differentialism, hybridization and convergence.** - **Cultural differentialism** emphasizes the fact that cultures are essentially different and are only superficially affected by global flows. The interaction of cultures is deemed to contain the potential for "catastrophic collision." - **Cultural hybridization** approach emphasizes the integration of local and global cultures. Globalization is considered to be a creative process which gives rise to hybrid entities that are not reducible to either the global or the local. An instance of hybridization in the Philippines is the intermarriage between Filipinos and foreigners. In the convergence of culture around the globe these concepts describe different processes like: - **Glocalization** -- or the interpenetration of the global and local resulting unique outcomes in different geographic areas (Giulianotti & Robertson, 2007). - An example is the Filipino spaghetti, It combines the foreign aspect of spaghetti and the Filipino inclination for sweetness. - Arjun Appadurai's **"Scapes"** in 1996, where global flows involve people, technology, finance, political images, and media and the disjuncture between them, which lead to the creation of cultural hybrids. **-** Global cultural flow, a theory coined by Arjun Appardurai, demonstrated the definition and effects of cultural flows in 5 distinct scapes: **ethnoscapes, technoscapes, financescapes, mediascaoes and ideoscapes.** Global cultural flow is a result of the process of globalization. 1\. **Ethnoscapes** refer to the shifting landscape of people across culture and borders such as tourists, immigrants, refugees. 2\. **Technoscapes** are the transmission of cultures through the flow of technology. New types of cultural interactions and exchanges are brought about by technology, particularly the internet. The globally integrated information network has become a powerful tool in shaping how culture and communication are transmitted across the globe. Nowadays, it is extremely easy to access an online form and hear an English man complaining about politics or watch a Brazilian dancing Samba. 3\. **Financescapes** refer to the global movement of money, including currency, trade and commodity, Countries nowadays are allowed to freely exchange good. However, it leads to the intensification of competition amongst corporations. 4\. **Mediascapes** refers to the electronic capabilities of production and dissemination of information through media. 5\. **Ideoscapes** are the global flow of ideologies. *Mediascapes* and *ideoscapes* have a close relationship as they usually work upon the reliance of the other scape. Ideas can be disseminated via media platforms. An example is Michael Jackson, is famously known as the king of Pop. He used his fame to promote world peace, equality and human rights through his songs. These songs were then broadcasted on media and his ideology approached thousands of his fans around the world, which helped shape their perceptions and inspire them. **Supply Chain** -A supply chain may be affected by something called a "**red tape**," which is the excessive bureaucracy of a country which may hinder the flow of the supply chain. **Political and Economic Systems** -In a democratic state, the most compatible economic system is capitalism. In a socialist state, the most compatible economic system is socialism. -In 1997, the People's Republic of China, which is a socialist state, experimented with capitalism. The end result was successful. **Cultural anthropology** -Convergence -Conflict -Hybrid **The Globalization of Religion** -Today, most religions are not relegated to the countries where they began. Religions, have, in fact, spread and scattered on a global scale. Globalization provided religions a fertile milieu to spread and thrive. Globalization has also allowed religion or faith to gain considerable significance and importance as a non-territorial touchstone of identity. Being a source of identity and pride, religion has always been promoted by its practitioners so that it could reach the level of globality and be embraced by so many people as possible. -Turner (2007) explained that globalization transforms the generic "religion" into a world-system of competing and conflicting religions. This process if institutional specialization has transformed local, diverse and fragmented cultural practices into recognizable systems of religion. Globalization has, therefore, had the paradoxical effect of making religions more self-conscious of themselves as being "world religions.' Such conflicts among the world religions exhibit a solid proof confirming the erosion and the failure of hybridization. Globalization, as stated in the above excerpt, makes religions more conscious of themselves as being "world religions" reinforcing their respective specific identifies. These identities are strengthened by globalization and cannot, in any way, intermingle or hybridize. Religion seek to assert its identity in the light of globalization. As a result, different religious identities come to the fore and assert themselves. Such assertions of religious identities constitute a defensive reaction to globalization. Scholte (2005), in this respect, maintained, "*at the same time as being pursued through global channels, assertions of religious identity have, nationalists' strivings, often also been partly a defensive reaction to globalization."* **TOPIC 5: Globalization and Regionalization** **Globalization and Regionalization** -The process of globalization and regionalization reemerged during the 1980's and heightened after the end of Cold War in the 1990's. At first, it seems that these two processes are contradicting, but the regionalization of the world system and economic activity undermines the potential benefits coming from a liberalized global economy. This is because regional organizations prefer regional partners over the rest. Regional organizations responds to the states' attempt to reduce the perceived negative effects of globalization. Therefore, *regionalism is a sort of counter-globalization*. -Instead of unifying the entire world, the world is still divided between the continents of the world. -WWII -- war between the Axis and the Allies -Cold War -- democracy (United States of America) vs socialism (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) -Communism is the end goal of socialism. -Regionalization -- groups like European Union of Europe and ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations) of South East Asia were organized. -AUN Certified Programs in a school. Graduating in a AUN Certified Program is equivalent to graduating from the same program in, for instance, a university in Singapore (*please VERIFY this information*). -According to Hurrell (2007) "one world/many worlds relationship. Regional developments in one part of the world have affected and fueled regionalization everywhere else in a sort of contagion or domino effect. This fact, along with increasing developments in interregional cooperation, shows the regionalization process is global in nature. Therefore, regionalization is intimately linked to globalization since it is a part of it and it builds on it. -**Regionalization** Hurrell (2007) -- societal integration and the often undirected process of social and economic interaction. Different from regionalism (Ravenhill, 2008), which is the formal process of intergovernmental collaboration between two or more states. -Huntington (2006), believed that *culture* and *identity* guide **regionalization.** For him "in the post-Cold War world, states increasingly define their interests in civilization terms." Non-state actors, such as Trans National Corporations (TNCs), act as a driving force toward regionalism. These TNCs, whose host countries are not part of a given regional trade agreement, find themselves in a disadvantaged commercial situation with respect to competing companies belonging to the regional organization in question. -Ravenhill (2008) said that disadvantaged TNCs will lobby their national governments to sign similar trade agreements in order to end their disadvantaged commercial situation. -Many policy makers and scholars think that globalization mist be regulated and managed. The threats of an "ungoverned globalization" can be countered what Jacoby and Meunier (2010) called managed globalization -- refers to all attempts to make globalization more palatable to citizens. **[\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_]** **MODULE NO. 2** **TOPIC 1: The Globalization of Religion** -Today, most religions are not relegated to the countries where they began. Religions, have, in fact, spread and scattered on a global scale. Globalization provided religions a fertile milieu to spread and thrive. Globalization has also allowed religion or faith to gain considerable significance and importance as a non-territorial touchstone of identity. Being a source of identity and pride, religion has always been promoted by its practitioners so that it could reach the level of globality and be embraced by so many people as possible. -Turner (2007) explained that globalization transforms the generic "religion" into a world-system of competing and conflicting religions. This process if institutional specialization has transformed local, diverse and fragmented cultural practices into recognizable systems of religion. Globalization has, therefore, had the paradoxical effect of making religions more self-conscious of themselves as being "world religions.' Such conflicts among the world religions exhibit a solid proof confirming the erosion and the failure of hybridization. Globalization, as stated in the above excerpt, makes religions more conscious of themselves as being "world religions" reinforcing their respective specific identifies. These identities are strengthened by globalization and cannot, in any way, intermingle or hybridize. Religion seek to assert its identity in the light of globalization. As a result, different religious identities come to the fore and assert themselves. Such assertions of religious identities constitute a defensive reaction to globalization. Scholte (2005), in this respect, maintained, "*at the same time as being pursued through global channels, assertions of religious identity have, nationalists' strivings, often also been partly a defensive reaction to globalization."* It had been difficult for religion to cope with values that accompany globalization like liberalism, consumerism, and rationalism. Such phenomena advocate **scientism** and **secularism**. This, in fact, pushed Scholte (2005) to speak of the anti-rationalist faiths. Since he equated rationalism with globalization and considered religion anti-rationalist, it can be deduced that religion is anti-globalization. According to Scholte (2005) "*transplanetary relations helped to stimulate and sustain some renewals of anti-rationalists faith, but global networks have more usually promoted activities involving rationalist knowledge. Contemporary revivalist movements have largely replayed a long-term tendency -- one that well predates contemporary accelerated globalization -- whereby certain religious circles have from time to time revolted against modern secularism and scientism.*" As Scholte (2005) made clear "*Accelerated globalization of recent times has enabled co-religionists across the planet to have greater direct contact with one another. Global communications, global organizations, global finance, and the like have allowed ideas of the Muslims and the universal Christian Church to be given concrete shape as never before*". **TOPIC 2: Origins and History of Globalization** ***Origins and History of Globalization*** There are many perspectives about how globalization started and these are the five different perspectives : 1\. Hardwired 2\. Cycles 3\. Epoch 4\. Events 5\. Broad changes ***Hardwired*** According to Chanda (2007), it is because of our basic needs to make lives better that made globalization possible. Therefore, one can trace the beginning of globalization from our ancestors in Africa who walked out from the said continent in the late Ice Age. This long journey finally led them to all-known continents today, roughly after 50,000 years ago. Chanda (2007) mentioned that commerce, religion, politics and warfare are the "urges" of people toward a better life. These are respectively connected to four aspects of globalization and they can be traced all throughout history: trade, missionary work, adventures and conquest. ***Cycles*** For some globalization is a long-term cyclical process and thus, finding its origin will be a daunting task. What is important is the cycles that globalization has gone through (Scholte, 2005). Subscribing to this view will suggest adherence to the idea that other global ages have appeared. There is also the notion to suspect that this point of globalization will soon disappear and reappear. ***Epoch*** Ritzer (2015) cited Therborn's (2000) great epochs of globalization. These are also called "waves" and each has its own origin. The following are the sequential occurrence of the epochs: 1\. globalization of religion (4th-7th centuries) 2\. European colonial conquests (late 15th century) 3\. Intra-European wars ( late 18th to early 19th centuries) 4\. Heyday of European imperialism (mid-19th century to 1918) 5\. Post-World War II Period 6\. Post-Cold War period ***Events*** -Specific events are also considered as part of the fourth view in explaining the origin of globalization. Several points can be treated as the start of globalization. Gibbon (1998), for example, argued that Roman conquests centuries before Christ were its origin. Rosenthal (2007) gave premium to the voyages of discovery -- Christopher Columbus's discovery of America in 1492, Vasco De Gama in Cape of Good Hope in 1498, and Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. -The recent years could be also regarded as the beginnings of globalization with reference to specific technological advances in transportation and communication. Some examples include the first transatlantic telephone cable (1956), the first transatlantic television broadcasts (1962), the founding of the modern internet in 1988, and the terrorist attacks on the Twin Towers in New York (2001). ***Broader, More Recent Changes*** These broad changes happened in the last of the 20th century. Scholars today point to these three notable changes as the origin of globalization that we know today. They are as follows: 1\. The emergence of the United States as the global power (post-World War II) 2\. The emergence of multi-national corporations (MNCs) 3\. The demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War ***Post Modernity*** \- In the late 20th Century where globalization became dominant force, many theorists proclaimed that this period is also the period of post modernity where new forms of technology are already beyond modern times. It is different from philosophical movement of deconstructing the modern Western narratives called post modernism. This video will provide you an insight about post modernity. **TOPIC 3: Global Demography** Post-Colonial Studies -- related to the study of diaspora ***Global Demography*** -Demographic transition is a singular historical period during which mortality and fertility rates decline from high to low levels in a particular country or region. The broad outlines of the transition are similar in countries around the world, but the place and timing of the transaction have varied considerably. \- The transition started in mid or late 1700s in Europe. During that time, death rates and fertility began to decline. High to low fertility happened 200 years in France and 100 years in United States. In other parts of the world, the transition began later. It was only in the 20th century that mortality decline in Africa and Asia, with the exemption of Japan. According to Maddison (2001), life expectancy in India was only 24 years in the early 20^th^ century while same life expectancy occurred in China in 1929 until 1931. \- Fertility decline in Asia did not begin until 1950s and so on. In the case of Japan, it was until the 1930s that "total fertility rate did not drop below five births per woman" (Shigeyuki, et. al. 2002). This resulted in rapid population growth after the World War II, affecting the age structure of Asia and the developing world. Specifically, the baby boom in the developing world was caused by the decline of infant and child mortality. The West, on the other hand, experienced baby boom that resulted from rising birth rates. A remarkable effect of the demographic transition, as Shigeyuki et. al, (2002) stated, is "the enormous gap in life expectancy that emerged between Japan and the West on the one hand and the rest of the world on the other". By 1820, the life expectancy at birth of Japan and the West was 12 years greater than other countries. \- There was a reverse in global population shares during the 20^th^ century as Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania had high levels of population growth rates. The United Nations projected the population growth will be shifted toward Africa. It is estimated that by 2150, the regions' share to the world population will be almost 20 percent, relatively much greater than its share in 1820 (7%) and 1900 (6%). Also in 2150, there will be a projected increase of two billion if we combine the populations of Asia, Latin America and Oceania. ***Global Population*** \- In demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently living, and was estimated to have reached 7,800,000,000 people as of March 2020.\[1\] It took over 200,000 years of human history for the world\'s population to reach 1 billion,\[2\]and only 200 years more to reach 7 billion.\[3\] **TOPIC 4: Global Migration** ***Global Migration*** \- Migration is one key factors of globalization. The nuances of the movements of people around the world can be seen through the categories of migrants -- "vagabonds" and "tourists" (Bauman, 1998). \- **Vagabonds** are on the move "because they have to be" (Ritzer, 2015) -- they are not faring well in their home countries and are forced to move in the hope that their circumstances will improve. **Tourists**, on the other hand, are on the move because they want to be and because they can afford it. Refugees are vagabonds forced to flee their home countries due to safety concerns (Haddad, 2003). **Asylum seekers** are refugees who seek to remain in the country to which they flee. \- According to Kritz (2008), those who migrate to find work are involved in labor migration. **Labor migration** is driven by "push" factors as well as "pull" factors. Labor migration mainly involves the flow of less-skilled and unskilled workers, as well as illegal immigrants who live on the margins of the host society (Landler, 2007). Migration is traditionally governed either by "push" factors such as political persecution, economic depression, war and famine in the home country or by "pull" factors such as favorable immigration policy, labor shortage, and similarity of language and culture in the country of destination (Ritzer, 2015). Global factors, which facilitate easy access to information about the country of destination, also exert a significant influence. \- According to Malkin (2007), the Philippines is one of the leaders when it comes to the flow of remittances (\$14.7 billion), next to India (\$24.5 billion) and China (\$21.1 billion). \- The term "**diaspora**" has been increasingly used to describe migrant communities. Paul Gilroy's (1993) conceptualization of the **diaspora** as a transnational process, which involves dialogue to both imagined and real locales. Diasporization and globalization are closely interconnected and the expansion of the latter will lead to an increase in the former (Dufoix, 2007). Today, there exists "virtual diasporas" (Laguerre, 2002) which utilize technology such as the internet to maintain the community network. ***Diaspora*** \- Diaspora means as a scattered population whose origin lies in a separate geographic locale. Historically, it pertains to the involuntary mass dispersion of a population from its indigenous territories, in particular the dispersion of Jews. This has since changed, and today there is no set definition of the term because its modern meaning has evolved over time. This video explains the global diaspora of people in different parts of the world as a postcolonial concept. **[\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_]** **MODULE NO. 3** **TOPIC 1: ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL TRADE** - Free Trade - Trade Liberalization - Trade Protectionism - Fair Trade - Neoliberalism **Tax** -- price levied by a government in exchange for a product/service. **Tariffs** - a tax or duty to be paid on a particular class of imports or exports. **GNP** - the total value of goods produced, and services provided by a country for one year, equal to the gross domestic product plus the net income from foreign investments. **Economic Globalization and Global Trade** According to the United Nations -- **Economic globalization** refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital, and wide and rapid spread of technologies. There are two different types of economies associated with economic globalization: - **Protectionism** means "a policy of systematic government intervention in foreign trade with the objective of encouraging domestic production. This encouragement involves giving preferential treatment to domestic producers and discriminating against foreign competitors" (McAleese, 2007) Trade protectionism usually comes in the form of quotas and tariffs. Tariffs are required fees on imports and exports. - **Trade liberalization** or **free trade** means goods and services move around the world more easily. ***Trade*** ***liberalization*** is the removal or reduction of restrictions or barriers on the free exchange of goods between nations. These barriers include tariffs, such as duties and surcharges, and nontariff, such as licensing rules and quotas. Globalization made some countries, especially the developing ones, to gain more in the global economy at the expense of other nations. There are other various ways, however, the country can make trade easier with other countries while lessening the inequities in the global world. One of them is "fair trade" (Nicholls & Opal, 2005). **Fair trade** is defined as "concern for the social, economic, and environmental well-being of marginalized producers (Downie, 2007). Fair trade aims for a more moral and equitable global economic system that is concerned with protection of workers and producers, establishment of more just prices, engagement in environmentally sound practices and sustainable production, creation of relationships between producers in the South and consumers in the North, and promotion of safe working environment. A concrete example of fair trade is the case of American coffee chains where coffee from taken from the South. **TOPIC 2: ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT** There are some significant downsides to globalize trade and perhaps the strongest argument against economic globalization is its lack of sustainability or the degree to which the earth's resources can be used for our needs, even in the future. - **Sustainable development** is defined as development of our world today using the earth's resources and the preservation of such resources for the future. Common challenges in sustainability are environmental degradation and food security. Environmental degradation became blatant during the Industrial Revolution where the concept of efficiency was introduced. **Efficiency** means finding the quickest possible way of producing large amounts of a particular product. This process made buying of goods easier to the people. Then, there is an increased demand. - There was an increase in demand that yields higher efficiency. This cycle harms the planet in a number of ways. For instance, the earth's atmosphere is damaged by more carbon emissions from factories around the world. Also the destruction of coral reefs and marine biodiversity as more and more wastes are thrown into the ocean. Harvey (2005) noted that **neoliberals** and **environmentalists** debate the impact of free trade on the environment. Environmentalist argue that environmental issues should be given priority over economic issues (Antonio, 2007). Neoliberals see the efforts of the environmentalists as serious impediments to trade. But some seek to integrate in other approaches like ecological modernization theory which sees globalization as a process that can both protect and enhance the environment (Yearley, 2007). **Kyoto Protocol** aimed at a reduction of global carbon emissions, but failed to take off largely because it was not ratified by the United States (Armitage, 2005). There are measures like "carbon tax" and "carbon neutrality" to deal with environmental problems (Ritzer, 2015). **Global food security** means delivering sufficient food to the entire world population. It should be a priority of all countries, it also means the sustainability of society such as population growth, climate change, water scarcity, and agriculture. The challenges to food security can be traced to the protection of the environment. A major environmental problem is the destruction of natural habitats, particularly, deforestation (Diamond, 2006). Other challenges are industrial fishing, declining usable farmland, and availability of fresh water. Other challenges are destruction of water ecosystem, pollution through toxic chemicals, greenhouse gases, melting of glacial ice, flooding, reduction of alkalinity of the oceans, and other destructions of existing ecosystems. Ultimately, global warming poses a threat to the global supply of food as well as to human health (Brown, 2007). Population growth contributes to increase consumption that intensify ecological problem. The UN promotes sustainable agriculture as the second of its **17 Sustainable Development Goals** (SDGs) for the year 2030. The World Economic Forum (2010) addressed the issue through New Vision for Agriculture (NVA) where public-private partnerships were established. This is a cooperation that encourage exchange of knowledge among farmers, government, civil society and the private sectors. **TOPIC 3: ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION, POVERTY AND INEQUALITY** Most big companies search for cheapest sources of raw materials and labor because of economic and trade globalization. The result is that labor-intensive products like shoes are often produced in countries with the lowest wages and the weakest regulations. The **multiplier effect** means an increase in one economic activity can lead to an increase in other economic activities. For instance, investing in local businesses will lead to more jobs and more income. Economic globalization has helped millions of people get out of extreme poverty, but the challenge of the future is to lift up the poor while at the same time keep the planet livable. Opponents of economic globalization called the **outsourcing of jobs** as exploitation and oppression, a form of **economic colonialism** that puts profit before people. Globalization and inequality are closely related. There are two main types of economic inequality: **wealth inequality** and **income inequality**. **Wealth** refers to the net worth of a country; all assets of a nation -- natural, physical and human less than liabilities. **Wealth inequality** speaks about the distribution of assets. To measure global economic inequality, economists look at income using Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This "explosion" of industry and modern technology causes economic differences among nations. The result is economic gap. Today, economic globalization and international trade are the forces responsible for global inequality. Access to technology also contributed to worldwide income inequality. In modernized economies, jobs are more technology-based, generally requiring new skills. This is referred as *skill-based* technological change. Division of the world comes in different labels. The term "**First, Second** and **Third World**" date back to the Cold War, when Western policymakers began talking about the world as three distinct political and economic blocs. Western capitalist countries were labeled as the "First World". The Soviet Union and its allies were termed the "Second World". Everyone else was grouped into "Third World". After the Cold War ended, the category of Second World countries became null and void, but somehow the terms "First World" and the "Third World" stuck around in the public consciousness. The Third World became associated with impoverished states, while the First World was associated with rich, industrialized countries. But the term "First World" and "Third World" aside from being outdated, are also inaccurate because of different levels of economic stability. Another classification was North-South, when the Second World joined either the First or the Third. United States, Canada, Western Europe, and developed parts of Asia are regarded as the "Global North", while the "Global South" includes the Caribbean, Latin America, South America, Africa, and parts of Asia. These distinctions point largely to racial inequality, specifically between the Black and the White. According to Ritzer (2015), "At the global level, whites are disproportionately in the dominant North, while blacks are primarily in the south; although this is changing with South-to-North migration". **TOPIC 4: THE GLOBAL CITY** A global city, also called a power city, world city, alpha city or world center, is a city which is a primary node in the global economic network. The concept comes from geography and urban studies, and the idea that globalization is created and furthered in strategic geographic locales according to a hierarchy of importance to the operation of the global system of finance and trade. The rural-urban differentiation has a significant relationship to globalization. Globalization has deeply altered North-South relations in agriculture. For instance, the relations of agricultural production have been altered due to the rise of global agribusiness and factory farms (McMichael, 2007). - In the scenario of relations between North and South in agriculture, the South produces non-traditional products for export and become increasingly dependent on industrialized food exports from the North. Consequently, this leads to a replacement of the staple diet as well as the displacement of local farmers. - Sassen (1991) used the concept of global cities to describe the three urban centers of New York, London and Tokyo as economic centers that exert control over the world's political economy. World Cities are categorized as such based on the global reach of organizations found in them. Not only are there inequalities between cities, there also exists inequalities within each city (Beaverstock, 2002). According to Castells (2000) these global cities can be seen as important nodes in a variety of global networks. Although cities are major beneficiaries of globalization, Bauman (2003) claimed that they are also most severely affected by global problems. Therefore, the city faces peculiar political problems, wherein it is often fruitlessly seeking to deal locally with global problems and "local politics has become hopelessly overloaded. **TOPIC 5: THEORIES OF GLOBAL STRATIFICATION** Theories of stratification explain reasons why some parts of the world develop faster economically compare to others like modernization theory, dependency theory and modern world-system. **Modernization Theory** frames global stratification as a function of technological and cultural differences between nations. Like the history of Western Europe, the Columbian Exchange -- spread of goods, technology, education and diseases between Americas and Europe after Columbus so called "discovery of Americas". An then, the Industrial Revolution, when new technologies allowed countries to replace human labor with machines and increase productivity. So modernization theory, rests on the ideas that affluence could be attained by anyone. - Modernization theory, in general, argues that if you invest capital in a better technologies, they will eventually raise production enough that there will be more wealth to go around and overall well-being will go up. Furthermore, rich countries can help other countries that are still growing by exporting their technologies. - Walt Rostow divided modernization in four stages: traditional stage, take-off stage, technological maturity and high mass consumption. These stages describes modernization process in the West. **Dependency theory** was a product of colonial experiences. Dependency is a condition in which the development of the nation- states of the South contributed to a decline in their independence and to an increase in economic development of the countries in the North. (Cardoso & Felato, 1979). It argues that liberal trade causes greater impoverishment to less developed countries. Dependency theory focuses on how poor countries have been wronged by richer nations because global stratification starts with colonialism. Another common assumption of the theory is that even after de-colonization, there are still important ties between the developed and less developed countries, which mainly consist in the exploitation od peripheral natural resources and workforce by the center (Anton, 2006). Dependency theorists saw the development of peripheral nations is stagnant because of the exploitative nature of the core nations (Ferraro, 2008). Less developed periphery countries are said to primarily serve the interests of the wealthier countries. **Cardoso & Felato** (1979) believed that Latin American economies were the results of capitalist expansion in the United States and Europe. The idea of **dependence** refers to the conditions under which alone the economic and political system can exist and function in its connections with the world productive structure. In other words, it was used to underscore the extent to which the economic and political development of poor countries was conditioned by the global economy, whose center of gravity was located in the developed countries. **The Modern World System** was a model by American sociologist **Immanuel Wallerstein**. He described high-income nations as the "core" of the world economy. This core is the manufacturing base of the planet where resources funnel in to become the technology and wealth enjoyed by the Western world today. Low-income countries, meanwhile, are called the "periphery", whose natural resources and labor support the wealthier countries. In Wallerstein's model, the periphery remains economically dependent on the core in a number of ways, which tend to reinforce each other (also called as **neocolonialism**). Critics of this theory argues that the world economy is not a zero-sum game -- one country getting richer does not mean other countries are getting poorer. Innovation and technological growth can spill over to other countries, improving all nations' well-being and not just the rich.