CompTIA A+ Prep Course 4.pdf

CompTIA A+ Prep Course Jim Price, CCNA, Security+, A+  ▪ 90-minute time limit ▪ Maximum of 90 questions ▪ Multiple Choice ▪ Drag & Drop ▪ Performance-based (Simulators) Core 1 E...

CompTIA A+ Prep Course Jim Price, CCNA, Security+, A+  ▪ 90-minute time limit ▪ Maximum of 90 questions ▪ Multiple Choice ▪ Drag & Drop ▪ Performance-based (Simulators) Core 1 Exam ▪ Passing Score = 675 (75%) on a scale of 100-900 ▪ Cost = $253 (in USA) (220-1101) Domain % Mobile Devices 15 [Focus = Hardware] Networking 20 Hardware 25 Virtualization & Cloud Computing 11 Hardware and Network 29  ▪ 90-minute time limit ▪ Maximum of 90 questions ▪ Multiple Choice ▪ Drag & Drop ▪ Performance-based (Simulators) Core 2 Exam ▪ Passing Score = 700 (78%) on a scale of 100-900 ▪ Cost = $253 (in USA) (220-1102) Domain % Operating Systems 31 [Focus = Software] Security 25 Software Troubleshooting 22 Operational Procedures 22 Hardware Overview  Computer Types Desktop Mobile Tower Laptop “Smart” Device Mini PC Desktop Replacement Tablet All-in-One Ultra Portable Smart Phone Thin Client Netbook IoT Device  MEMORY ▪ RAM (Random Access Memory) ▪ Very fast access to data ▪ Volatile – data is lost when power is turned off Memory and Storage STORAGE ▪ HDD (Hard Disk Drive) – traditional method ▪ SSD (Solid State Drive) – newer method ▪ Both are non-volatile – data is retained when powered off  POWER SUPPLY ▪ Usually internal for desktops ▪ Usually external (mostly) for laptops ▪ Converts AC to DC at several different voltages Power and Cooling COOLING ▪ Air cooling (fans) – most common method ▪ Liquid cooling – used in special applications ▪ Heat is the enemy of the internal components – particularly the CPUs  CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT) ▪ Mounted on the motherboard ▪ Mounted underneath a heat sink and cooling fan ▪ The “brains” of the computer CPU and Motherboard MOTHERBOARD ▪ The part to which everything else attaches ▪ Provides power to the CPU and RAM ▪ Makes the electrical (data) connection between all components  PORTS ▪ Built in to the motherboard ▪ Allow connection of various external peripheral devices ▪ Video, audio and network connections, USB Ports and Expansion Cards EXPANSION CARDS ▪ Plug into the motherboard ▪ Often provide additional ports ▪ Allow addition of capabilities not found on the motherboard  INPUT ▪ Keyboard ▪ Mouse, trackball or touchpad ▪ Touchscreen Input and Output OUTPUT ▪ Monitor ▪ Speakers ▪ Printer ▪ Network connection(s) Motherboards Hardware  MOTHERBOARDS ▪ The basis of the entire computer ▪ All hardware communicates through the motherboard ▪ Provides power to some components Motherboards CHIPSET and Chipsets ▪ Defines what features are supported, such as: ▪ CPU make and model ▪ RAM type, capacity and speed ▪ Port types ▪ Storage types and RAID support ▪ Expansion slots ▪ Network connections Typical Motherboard Layout  Motherboard Form Factors The motherboard form factor defines the size of the board, but does NOT directly affect the performance. It will affect the availability of ports and slots. Types of form factors: ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended) The largest form factor (EATX) MicroATX (Advanced Technology eXtended) A mid-sized form factor Mini-ITX (Information Technology eXtended) A much smaller form factor  PCI (Peripheral Computer Interconnect) expansion slots are used to attach hardware devices to expand the capabilities of a computer system beyond what’s integrated into the motherboard. PCI slots are the oldest and slowest slots so should only be used for the sake of compatibility 32-bit bus allows for 266 MB/s Mini PCI slots can be found in older mobile Expansion Slots computers but are not common - PCI PCI Slots on a Desktop  x8 PCIe (Peripheral Computer Interconnect Express) expansion x16 slots are used to attach hardware devices to expand the capabilities of a computer system beyond what’s integrated into the motherboard. x1 PCIe slots are the latest and fastest slots Available in different sizes x1, x4, x8, x12, x16 and x32 PCIe Slots on a Desktop Bigger slots offer more lanes to transfer data so offer increased performance over the smaller slots Smaller cards will always work in a bigger slot Expansion Slots Bigger cards can sometimes work in a smaller slot Mostly used for WiFi adapters and SSD storage - PCIe Mini PCIe is a common internal expansion for laptops and desktops Version Year Transfer Rate Number Released ×1 ×4 ×8 ×16 1 2003 0.250 GB/s 1.000 GB/s 2.000 GB/s 4.000 GB/s 2 2007 0.500 GB/s 2.000 GB/s 4.000 GB/s 8.000 GB/s 3 2010 0.985 GB/s 3.938 GB/s 7.877 GB/s 15.754 GB/s 4 2017 1.969 GB/s 7.877 GB/s 15.754 GB/s 31.508 GB/s 5 2019 3.938 GB/s 15.754 GB/s 31.508 GB/s 63.015 GB/s  Front Panel Connectors provide connections for buttons, switches and lights on the case. Switches: Power button Rest button Lights Power LED HDD LED Chassis Intrusion Speaker Pin Headers Front Panel Connectors Front Panel Pin Header  USB Pin Headers provide a connection to the external USB ports. USB 2.0 USB Pin Headers USB 3.x  ATX20 Power Connector Power Connectors ATX24 Power Connector ATX12v Power Connector CPU fan connectors are either 3- pin or 4-pin connectors. 4-pin CPU Fan Connector Fan Connectors 4-pin Chassis Fan Connector Front intake with rear and top exhaust Chassis or Case fans are designed to pull in cool air from the front and expel hot air out the rear, top or side of the case. BIOS/UEFI Hardware/Firmware  Computer Firmware The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) or UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware) initiates the boot process and is used to manage the integrated hardware features on the motherboard. ROM (Read-Only Memory) chips are used to store the BIOS/UEFI EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) chips are used in modern systems Enable updating BIOS/UEFI via a flashing process Updates enable compatibility with new hardware or fix security vulnerabilities UEFI-Only Features Secure Boot: Blocks untrusted code from running at boot Faster Startup Mouse and Keyboard Interaction  CMOS (Complimentary Metal –Oxide Semiconductor The CMOS is used to store configuration changes to the BIOS/UEFI. CMOS Setup Utility is accessed by pressing “Delete”, “F2” or another key during boot EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) chips are used in modern systems Enable updating BIOS/UEFI via a flashing process Updates enable compatibility with new hardware or fix security vulnerabilities CMOS is volatile memory Requires power to keep data CR2032 battery provides that power Reverts to default settings if power is lost CR2032 battery Clear CMOS Jumper Clear CMOS Switch  Common CMOS Settings Boot Device Priority – controls the order of the drives from which the computer will boot Enable/Disable Access to Ports USB Thunderbolt Serial Network Wake-on-LAN (WoL) Virtualization Support AMI BIOS Setup Utility Intel-VT/VT-d or AMD-V Overclocking CPU multipliers and voltages RAM timing and voltages Interface Configurations Security Features BIOS/UEFI Passwords Trusted Platform Module (TPM) Hardware Security Module (HSM) ASUS UEFI BIOS Utility  POST (Power On Self Test) and POST Cards The Power On Self Test is a routine check of the hardware in the computer. This is the first thing that occurs when you power a computer on. If a component fails, the computer will beep or generate error codes to indicate which component is failing. Sample POST Beeps: Single Beep – usually a good sign; everything is ok Long Repeating Beep – often indicates a problem with RAM One Long Beep and Three Short Beeps – may indicate a video card problem These Beep Codes are manufacturer (and sometimes model) specific. Check the manufacturer’s website for beep codes. POST Cards will display an error code indicating the component which is failing. Once again, these are typically manufacturer (and sometimes model) dependent. CPUs Hardware  Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Architecture The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is a core component, and the “brains” of all computing devices. The CPU processes instructions for the operating system (OS), applications and other components. The motherboard chipset and socket determine CPU compatibility. There are two primary CPU architectures: x86/x64: CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) based architecture which includes many instructions to perform many diverse tasks Designed with desktop and server systems in mind Intel and AMD dominate this market space Consumes lots of power and generates lots of heat Large library of compatible software ARM (Advanced RISC Machine): RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) based architecture includes much fewer instructions than x86/x64 Designed with mobile and portable computers in mind Qualcomm, Samsung, Nvidia, Apple, and many others compete in this space Power efficient and generates less heat Limited software compatibility but growing quickly  Desktop and Server CPU Sockets PGA (Pin Grid Array) Sockets: Connector with holes to receive pins on the bottom of the CPU Older style still used by AMD for some Ryzen CPUs LGA (Land Grid Array) Sockets: Connector with pins that contact the pads on the bottom of the CPU Intel created and exclusively uses LGA sockets Used by AMD for their Ryzen Threadripper and EYPC CPUs AM4 PGA Socket AMD Ryzen CPU LGA1700 Socket Intel Core i-Series CPU  Server CPU Sockets Multi-socket Motherboards: Some server motherboards have multiple CPU sockets to provide high performance Can be either LGA or PGA socket types but never both Dual LGA CPU Motherboard Quad LGA CPU Motherboard  Sockets and Processors Socket Generation Intel CPUs Socket Pins Style AMD CPUs LGA 1155 2nd & 3rd AM3+ 942 PGA FX Vishera, FX Zambezi LGA 1150 4th FM2 904 PGA A-Series LGA 2011 3rd, 4th, & 5th Core i3/i5/i7/i9, FM2+ 906 PGA A-Series LGA 1151 6th, 7th, 8th, & 9th Pentium, Celeron, Xeon AM4 1331 PGA Ryzen, Athlon, A-Series LGA 1200 10th & 11th TR4 4094 LGA Ryzen Threadripper LGA 1700 12th sTRX4 4094 LGA Ryzen Threadripper High-Performance CPUs Mainstream CPUs Budget CPUs Server CPUs Core i3, Pentium and Intel Core i9 Core i5 and i7 Xeon Celeron AMD Ryzen Threadripper Ryzen Athlon and A-Series EYPC  Mobile CPU Sockets Mobile CPUs are designed to be smaller and more power efficient than desktop CPUs to better fit needs of mobile users. Laptops use BGA sockets. BGA (Ball Grid Array) Sockets: There is no connector, instead balls of solder on used to attach the CPU to the board Intel and AMD use them for their mobile CPUs BGA Style Intel Core i7-5500U  Clock Speed Clock speed is an indicator of performance, how fast a CPU can process data.. A higher frequency indicates faster performance. Clock speed is measured in cycles per second (Hertz = Hz) or multiples of that. For example, 1000 MHz = 1 GHz. 32-bit and 64-bit This is a measure of how many bits a processor can address in a single cycle. 64-bit is the current standard, but you may run across some older 32-bit machines. CPU Technology 32 Bit CPU 64 Bit CPU x86 / 32-bit Software x64 / 64-bit Software Maximum RAM 4 Gigabytes 16 Terabytes Windows 10 Windows 11 macOS Linux  Multithreading Hyper-Threading is an Intel based technology which allows a CPU core to process multiple instructions instantaneously. Referred to as Simultaneous multithreading (SMT) by other manufacturers like AMD. Multicore A multicore processor is a single chip that has two or more processor cores attached Provides enhanced performance and reduced power consumption CPU Technology Enables more efficient simultaneous processing of multiple tasks Dual-Core, Quad-Core, Hexa-Core and Octa-Core processor are common in all computing devices Dual core Dual core Single core 1GHz CPU 1GHz CPU 1GHz CPU App App App 1 App App 1 2 1 2 App App App 2 3 4 Multithreading Multicore Multicore with Multithreading  Virtualization Support Virtualization support allows a system to host virtual machines (VMs) NOT all CPUs support this feature, check manufacturers’ documentation Can be enabled or disabled in the BIOS/UEFI utility Intel Virtualization Technology (Intel VT) Also known as Intel VT-d in a BIOS/UEFI menu AMD Virtualization Technology (AMD-V) Also known as Secure Virtual Machine in a BIOS/UEFI menu CPU Technology  ▪ Throttling a CPU is done to reduce power consumption and so the CPU generates less heat. Modern CPUs will reduce their clock speed if they become too hot. ▪ Intel calls its throttling technology “SpeedStep” ▪ AMD calls their throttling technology “Cool’n’Quiet” ▪ Overclocking a CPU will increase the CPU frequency by increasing the multiplier to get better performance. CPU Technology ▪ Supplying a better cooling solution is a must when overclocking; liquid cooling is recommended. ▪ Only recommended for gamers. ▪ Clock Multipliers are used to change the ratio of the base clock and the external clock often modified to overclock a CPU. ▪ CPU clock x Clock multiplier = CPU frequency. ▪ 150 MHz x 10 = 1,500 MHz/1.5 GHz  System Cooling – Passive Cooling Passive cooling techniques do NOT use any moving parts. Thermal Compounds are a paste or grease that’s applied to the top of a chip to assist in moving the heat away from a chip Fills in the microscopic imperfections in the CPU aluminum lid Conducts heat away from the CPU and into the heat sink Must be replaced if it becomes dry and brittle Thermal pads are soft rubber pads that are an alternative to thermal compounds Last longer than thermal compound but not as good at transferring heat Commonly used on memory chips NOT commonly used with CPUs Heat Sinks are blocks of metal that absorb the heat from the chip on which they sit Commonly used with CPUs, memory, SSDs, GPUs, and chipsets Before you install a heat sink, you must always apply thermal compound  System Cooling – Active Cooling Active cooling techniques DO use moving parts. CPU Fan/CPU Cooler Includes a heatsink with a fan mounted on it If a system is overheating, consider replacing the stock cooler with a more efficient one Compatibility is based on the CPU socket type Case Fans Intake fans pull in cool air Exhaust fans push out the hot air 200mm 92mm 80mm 60mm 40mm Case Fans from 200mm – 40mm  System Cooling – Advanced Cooling Liquid cooling uses either water or coolant to transfer heat as quickly as possible. Liquid cooling: Can be very dangerous because the risk of a leak Liquid cooling kits can be more efficient but require regular maintenance All-in-one coolers do NOT require regular maintenance but may not be as efficient Only recommended if overclocking or gaming All-in-one (AIO) Liquid Cooler Full liquid cooling kit  ▪ Installation Problems ▪ Fan doesn’t spin: Verify fan and power connections, most systems will not boot if a CPU fan is not connected. ▪ No activity: If pressing the power button does not produce any sounds, lights or fan spins then verify the CPU is seated properly. ▪ Heat Issues CPU ▪ Loud alarm: CPU is overheating so the system will not Troubleshooting power on for protection. ▪ Spontaneous shutdown: CPUs have protection against overheating, which causes them to shutdown when temperatures get too high. Potential solutions: ▪ Clean the case, fans and grills ▪ Manage cables to clear the air flow path ▪ Reapply thermal paste or replace the CPU cooler RAM Hardware  RAM stands for Random Access Memory, which is the most common type of system memory used by current computing devices. All applications that are open on a system require some amount of memory, so the higher capacity of RAM the more applications that can be opened. There are typically two types of RAM used: SRAM: Static RAM is memory that is often RAM used as cache inside of CPUs, hard drives, LCDs and other components. It is soldered directly to the component, so it is NOT a serviceable part. This type of RAM is often referred to as ‘cache”. DRAM: Dynamic RAM is the memory that is installed on the motherboard. DRAM comes in “sticks” that vary in capacity. Common sizes range from 2GB to 32GB, but larger sizes are available  RAM Form Factors RAM is available in two form factors: DIMM and SODIMM. These differ in size, but should be the same in performance if all other factors are the same. DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module) sticks are commonly found in desktops and servers. SODIMM (Small Outline Dual Inline Memory Module) sticks are commonly found in laptops and Small Form Factor (SFF) systems.  Double data rate (DDR) is the advanced version of synchronous dynamic random-access memory. DDR RAM is available in various types (DDR, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, DDR5) Different types of DDR RAM are NOT compatible with each other A motherboard that supports one type of DDR RAM will NOT work with any other type DDR RAM Performance Rating DDR-266 = PC-2100 266 x 8 = 2128 Transfer Bits Mbps Rate  DDR RAM Comparisons DDR RAM is currently available in DDR3, DDR4 and DDR5. Type Min Speed Max Speed Pins DIMM: 240 DDR3 DDR3-800 / PC3-6400 DDR3-2133 / PC3-17000 SODIMM: 204 DIMM: 288 DDR4 DDR4-1600 / PC4-12800 DDR4-3200 / PC4-25600 SODIMM: 260 DIMM: 288 DDR5 DDR5-4800 / PC5-38000 DDR5-6600 / PC5-52800 SODIMM: 262  Memory Channels Memory channeling allows a system to access more RAM simultaneously to improve performance. Channels Configuration Description Single Channel No requirements System can access a single chip at a time Dual Channel Matching pairs System can access two chips at once Triple Channel Matching threes System can access three chips at once Quad Channel Matching fours System can access four chips at once Single Channel Dual Channel  ▪ Latency measures how responsive RAM is when data is being read from it. In other words, how quickly does it respond? This is measured as a CAS level, or in milliseconds. Lower is better in either measurement. ▪ ECC (Error checking and correcting) RAM can detect and fix errors in data on RAM. This type isn’t RAM Latency common except on critical servers. It makes the system more stable, but is slower due to the additional and Variations processes. ▪ Registered and Buffered Memory includes extra chips to allow for more consistent communications between the memory controller and RAM. This type is only found in high memory capacity servers. Unbuffered memory is common for other systems.  ▪ Maximum capacity is predetermined. Check the manufacturer’s specifications. ▪ RAM type is critical because only one will be supported by the motherboard. ▪ RAM Form Factor is also critical. A SODIMM will not RAM fit on a desktop motherboard, and a DIMM will not fit in Replacement a laptop. Considerations ▪ RAM speed should match the motherboard’s supported speed, but this is not an absolute requirement for compatibility. ▪ Number of slots will determine how many sticks of RAM can be installed.  ▪ Motherboards produce a long repeating beeps when there’s a problem with RAM. A blank display is also a sign of that there might be RAM issues since most newer systems do not beep. ▪ Verify the DIMMs are seated properly. They can lose contact because of dust or dirt. They can also experience chip creep, which occurs from the heating and cooling of the RAM. RAM ▪ BIOS/UEFI reports incorrect configuration of RAM capacity or channeling. Troubleshooting ▪ Verify the DIMMs are installed in the correctly paired slots. Often the color of the slots is enough guidance but if in doubt check the manufacturers manual/website. ▪ Memory or address errors when using the system can be a sign of faulty RAM. ESD or damage from the factory can cause RAM to fail. ▪ Replace the suspect RAM with known good working RAM and see if the problems persist. Power  Power Supply Units A Power supply unit (PSU) is a critical component since it provides power to the motherboard and all other components attached to it. Wattage rating identifies the total amount of power a PSU can deliver 500 watts is what CompTIA recommends as a standard PSU Match the wattage when replacing a PSU or get one with a higher wattage, never lower Non-Modular PSUs have all the cables permanently attached Can take up space and reduce airflow Non-Modular PSU Modular PSUs don’t have any cables attached, just connectors Only need to attach the cables that are needed Redundant Power Supplies are found on critical servers to prevent system downtime if a PSU fails. These are NOT found on consumer class systems Fully Modular PSU  ATX versus SFX ATX power supplies are used in computer cases that support ATX and micro-ATX motherboards SFX power supplies are used in computer cases that support Mini-ITX or smaller form factors Power Supply Form Factors SFX and ATX PSUs  Power Supply Connectors Molex Power Connector ▪ Supplies 5v and 12v ▪ Used by IDE drives, case fans, and other devices ▪ Also known as the Standard connector SATA Drive Power Connector ▪ Supplies 5v, 12v and 3.3v ▪ Used on SATA drives only PCIe power connector ▪ Used to give additional power to PCIe video cards ▪ 6 pin supplies 75 watts ▪ 8 pin supplies 150 watts  Power Supply Connectors ATX Connector ▪ Supplies 5v, 12v and 3.3v ▪ Gives power to the motherboard ▪ Comes in a 20 pin and 24 pin version ATX12v ▪ 4 pin connector also known the P4 connector ▪ Connects to the motherboard to give power to the CPU  Power Supply Troubleshooting A Power Supply Unit may fail completely or partially. With a complete failure, nothing inside the case will power on. With a partial failure, some components receive power, while other don’t. PSUs are a Field Replaceable Unit (FRU) and can be replaced. Some PSUs have a voltage switch for either US or European voltages. Make sure that is set correctly. Multimeter – measures voltage, Power Supply Tester – can resistance, current and other metrics automatically identify if a PSU is failing and needs to be replaced Power Supply Tester Multimeter  Power Supply Troubleshooting – AC Outlets AC power outlets connect electrical equipment to the alternating current (AC) mains power in our homes and offices. Damage to devices and fire can occur if the outlet is wired incorrectly. A multimeter can be used to confirm power is available at the outlet and that the voltage is correct An AC Outlet Tester can be used to identify if the outlet is wired correctly DO NOT try to repair an outlet that is incorrectly wired. Report it immediately. Only a trained and licensed electrician should repair or replace an outlet at a commercial site. Neutral Hot 120 volts Ground AC Outlet Tester Standard AC Outlet  A Surge Protector/Suppressor is a simple device that offer protection against power spikes (surges). Computing equipment and peripherals should always be connected to a Power surge protector instead of directly to an AC outlet. The Protection Joule rating indicates how much energy it can absorb before it fails. The higher the Joule rating, the better the protection. CompTIA recommends a minimum 600 Surge Protector joules.  A UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supplies) is a battery backup that will keep your critical equipment powered even when there is a disruption in electrical service. These provide surge protection as well as protection against brownouts and blackouts. UPS Considerations: Load identifies how much power it can deliver Run time indicates how long it can power devices Devices that should be UPS-protected include servers, critical computers and monitors as well as critical networking equipment Power Protection UPS font and rear view  Power Supply Splitters and Adapters Adapters are useful when a PSU lacks a required connector, they convert one connector to another connector. Splitters can multiply a connector and convert it. Molex to SATA Splitter Molex to PCIe Adapter ATX20 to ATX24 Adapter Storage  ▪ Capacity defines how much data can be stored, and is measured in megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), or terabytes (TB). ▪ Performance defines how fast data can be read or written, and is measured in bits per second (bps), Storage megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps). This is also known as throughput. Terminology ▪ Interface is how the drive connects to the computer system. Typical internal interfaces are SATA and m.2. Typical external interfaces are USB and Thunderbolt. This is also known as the connector. ▪ Form factor defines the dimensions of the disk.  Hard Disk Drive (HDD) Hard Disk Drives use a magnetic head to read/write data onto spinning metal or ceramic platters. Available in 2.5” and 3.5” form factors Commonly connected to SATA interfaces Also found in legacy interfaces such as IDE/PATA and SCSI Advantages Affordable in large sizes up to 22TB Disadvantages Not ideal for mobile since there are many moving parts Slower at reading and writing data than an SSD Inside 3.5” drive Platter Speeds Common use Sizes 5,400 RPMs Laptop/Notebooks 2.5” and 3.5” 7,200 RPMs Desktops 2.5” and 3.5” 10,000 RPMs Gaming and servers 3.5” 15,000 RPMs Enterprise and data centers 3.5” 2.5” and 3.5” Drives  Solid State Drive (SSD) Solid State Drives (SSD) uses an array of NAND flash chips to read and write data electrically. Available in SATA and M.2 form factors Advantages Ideal for mobile since there are no moving parts Faster at reading/writing data Disadvantages More expensive than traditional HDDs Price per GB is how we determine the relative value of the drive SATA SSD out of its shell 1TB HDD sells for about $30, that’s $30/1000GB = $3 per gigabyte 1TB SSD sells for about $100, that’s $100/1000GB = $10 per gigabyte Limited write cycles Writing to NAND chips degrades their ability to M.2/NVMe SSD store data Reading from NAND chips does NOT degrade them  Solid State Hybrid Drive (SSHD) Solid State Hybrid Drives are mostly HDDs with a much smaller portion of SSD storage. Available in 2.5” and 3.5” form factors Prioritize frequently used files and places them in the SSD portion for faster loading SSD capacity can range from 8GB to 32GB Advantages Bigger space at a lower cost than an SSD Some files will open faster Disadvantages Not ideal for mobile since there are many moving parts Not all files will open quickly  SATA Connections SATA (Serial ATA) is a connector used to attach storage devices such as HDDs, SSDs, and optical drives. Connector is ambidextrous; either end can connect to the motherboard or the drive All SATA types are compatible with each other Hot swappable drives Replaced the older PATA/IDE connector Mini SATA (mSATA) is a smaller version found in SFF systems 6 SATA ports SATA Versions Type Max Speed SATA 1 1.5 Gbps / 150 MB/s SATA 2 3 Gbps / 300 MB/s SATA 3 6 Gbps / 600 MB/s SATA Cable Mini SATA (mSATA)  SATA Drives SATA Drive Form Factors 3.5-inch drives Large form factor used in desktop and server systems Drive sizes up to 22TB Available in both HDD and SSD 2.5-inch drives Small form factor used in portable, desktop, and 2.5” and 3.5” SATA Drives server systems Drive sizes up to 5TB Available in both HDD and SSD mSATA drives Small form factor used in portable, desktop, and server systems Available in SSD only mSATA Drive  M.2 Connections M.2 connectors have quickly become the preferred SSD form factor. Key ID Device Supported Standard Smallest drive form factor B Key SATA SSD SATA Replaced the older mSATA standard Supports SATA and NVMe solid state drives M Key NVMe SSD PCIe x2/x4 Formerly NGFF (Next Generation Form Factor) B+M Key SATA or NVMe SSD SATA or PCIe M.2 slots are “keyed” to identify what type of device or drive is supported SATA B+M key SSD NVMe M key SSD  NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory Express) Connections NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory express) PCIe based SSD drive which provides the best performance Fastest SSDs on the market Available in different lengths NVMe to PCIe Adapter  Legacy Storage Connections IDE/PATA SCSI 166 MBps maximum data rate 320 MBps maximum data rate 40-pin ribbon connector 80-pin ribbon connector 1 connector supports 2 drives 1 connector supports many drives  Removable Storage – External Drives External Drives are a convenient way to Connector Speeds Power Portable Drives expand storage Available in HDD or SSD eSATA 1.5Gbps - 6Gbps No Available in various connector types 3.5” drives require AC power USB 480Mbps - 40Gbps Yes 2.5” drives may be powered from the Thunderbolt 10Gbps - 80Gbps Yes data port USB3.0 & eSATA drive Thunderbolt drive  Removable Storage – External Drive Enclosures External Drive Enclosures can be used to make an internal drive into an external one. Useful if you have a spare drive you want to make into a portable or back drive. Available in SATA and NVMe drive compatibility with USB, thunderbolt and eSATA as connection. NVMe thunderbolt enclosure 2.5” SATA USB enclosure  Removable Storage – Flash Memory Devices USB Thumb/Flash/Pen Drives Faster, larger, and more durable than floppy disks or optical media Meant to be used to transport data Should NOT be used as persistent storage like a hard drive Memory Cards/Storage Cards Used in portable devices like smartphones, cameras, tablets, and game consoles Many formats exist; SD, miniSD, microSD, CompactFlash (CF) Card readers can be used to connect a storage card if support isn’t included in a device CompactFlash, SD, and microSD Cards USB flash drive USB card reader  Removable Storage – Optical Drives Optical Drive Laser Read Only Media Recordable Media Rewriteable Media Common Sizes CD Red CD-ROM CD-R CD-RW 700MB DVD-ROM DVD-RW SS/SL: 4.7GB DVD Red DVD-R DVD-Video DVD-RAM SS/DL: 8.5GB 25GB BD-ROM BD-RE Bluray Blue BD-R 50GB BD-Video BDXL 200GB (BDXL)  ▪ RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) combines identical hard drives to either increase storage capacity and performance, provide data protection, or both. RAID is not specific to any type of drive, can be IDE, SATA, M.2, PCIe, USB or Thunderbolt. ▪ Hardware RAID ▪ Motherboard built-in RAID Storage ▪ PCI or PCIe RAID controller card Redundancy - ▪ USB/Thunderbolt external RAID encloser ▪ Software RAID RAID ▪ Windows: Dynamic Disk and Storage Spaces ▪ macOS: Disk Utility can be used to create RAID arrays ▪ Linux: Built-in to the Linux kernel as a standard ▪ JBOD (Just a Bunch of Disks) combines disks to form a large storage space. This does NOT provide any performance benefit or data protection.  RAID 0 – Striping RAID 0 uses disk striping to combine drives into one larger and faster logical drive. RAID 0 Disk Striping is a method of storage that spreads data bits across all disks in the array, increasing performance and capacity Advantage Faster read and write because of disk striping A1 A2 Larger storage than any single disk Only two disks are required, but more disks will A3 A4 increase capacity and performance Disadvantage – NO Data Protection! A5 A6 If one disk fails all data is lost without a backup More disks you have the more data you can lose without A7 A8 a backup  RAID 1 – Mirroring RAID 1 provides data protection by mirroring data across two RAID 1 disks. Disk Mirroring actively duplicates bits across two disks to prevent data loss Advantage Data protection - If one disk fails, there is NO data loss A1 A1 Only two disks are required No performance lost if a disk fails A2 A2 Fast recovery Disadvantage – Slower! A3 A3 Maximum storage capacity is limited to the size of a single disk A4 A4 One disk for storage and one for protection Dual write uses more resources and slows write performance  RAID 5 – Mirroring RAID 5 uses disk striping to combine drives into one larger and faster logical drive and distributes parity RAID 5 across all disks in the array. Parity data is a smaller representative value that can be used to recreate data if data is lost Advantages Data protection - If one disk fails, parity will be A1 A2 P1 used to recreate the data Larger storage than a single drive A3 P2 A4 Disadvantages Three disks are required. More disks will P3 A5 A6 increase capacity NOT protection or performance Parity is SLOW! A7 A8 A9 Makes working while a disk has failed slow Makes rebuilding the array slow when replacing a degraded disk  RAID 10 – Nested, striped mirrors RAID 10 (1+0) combines disk into RAID 1 arrays and then combines those arrays into a RAID 0. Parity data is a smaller representative RAID 10 value that can be used to recreate data if data is lost RAID 0 Advantages Faster read and write because of disk striping A1 A1 A2 A2 Larger storage than any single disk More disks will increase capacity, A3 A3 A4 A4 performance, and protection No performance loss if a disk fails A5 A5 A6 A6 Fast recovery Disadvantages A7 A7 A8 A8 Four disk minimum RAID 1 RAID 1 If a RAID 1 array fails all data will be lost - that’s two disks in a single RAID 1 failing  Comparing RAID Levels RAID 0 RAID 1 RAID 5 RAID 10 (1+0) Min # of Drives 2 2 3 4 Max # of Drives Unlimited 2 Unlimited Unlimited Max # Failures 0 1 1 2 or More Storage Protection ✘ ✓ ✓ ✓ Larger Storage ✓ ✘ ✓ ✓ Faster Storage ✓ ✘ ✘ ✓ Fast Recovery ✘ ✓ ✘ ✓ Protection Method None Mirroring Parity Mirroring Storage Method Striping Duplexing Striping Striping  What to do when a RAID array stops working RAID 0 Replace any degraded disk, recreate the array, recover data from a backup. RAID 1/ RAID 10 Replace the degraded disk, “re-mirror” the drive during scheduled downtime. RAID 5 Troubleshooting Replace the degraded disk, “rebuild” the array during scheduled downtime. RAID RAID Not Found This can occur for any number of reasons, follow standard troubleshooting methodology. Check cables, power, controller and configurations. Check drive compatibility  Light-emitting diode (LED) status indicators Grinding noises Clicking sounds Bootable device not found Data loss/corruption Common Self-monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Storage Issues Technology (S.M.A.R.T.) failure Extended read/write times Input/output operations per second (IOPS) Missing drives in OS Peripheral Ports and Cables  Serial Ports Serial Ports are one of the oldest ports still in use but for very few occasions Most computers do NOT include a serial port Serial port can be added via USB, PCI, or PCIe expansion card Can be used to manage enterprise-class network devices, program microcontrollers, or control robotic equipment Also known as the RS-232 (Recommended Standard 232), DB9, COM Port (Communication port) USB to Serial Adapter Rollover Cable (Console) / Serial to RJ-45  USB (Universal Serial Bus) Ports USB (Universal Serial Bus) Supports keyboards, mouse, storage devices, printers, scanners, webcams, gamepads, ethernet, WiFi, displays, audio devices, touchscreens. 127 devices can be plugged into a single USB port 3 meters (10 feet) cable length limit USB Version Speed Color USB 1.0 Low Speed 1.5 Mbps White USB 1.1 Full Speed 12 Mbps White USB 2.0 Hi-Speed 480 Mbps Black USB 3.0 SuperSpeed 5 Gbps Blue USB 3.1 SuperSpeed+ 10 Gbps Teal USB 3.2 SuperSpeed++ 20 Gbps N/A USB 4 SuperSpeed+++ 40 Gbps N/A  USB Connectors Type A Type B Mini B Micro B USB 1.0 – 2.0 USB 1.0 – 2.0 USB 1.0 – 2.0 USB 1.0 – 2.0 Type A (host port) Computer connector Type B (guest port) Device connector Type C (host and guest port) Computer & device connector Reversable Type A Type B Micro B Type C USB 3.0 – 3.1 USB 3.0 – 3.1 USB 3.0 – 3.1 USB 2.0 – 4  Thunderbolt Ports Thunderbolt Fastest and most capable connector Compatible with DisplayPort and USB devices Supports storage devices, displays, audio, networking, and adapters 6 thunderbolt devices can be daisy chained using a single thunderbolt port Thunderbolt Versions Speed Port Type Version 1 10 Gbps Mini Display Port Version 2 20 Gbps Mini Display Port Version 3 40 Gbps USB Type C Mini Display Port Version 4 80 Gbps USB Type C USB Type-C Display Ports  HDMI (High_Definition Multimedia Interface) HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) HD and UHD audio and video Most common connector for connecting computers to monitors and televisions An active HDMI cable is required for connections longer than 25 feet HDCP (High-Definition Copy Protection) support is required for some HD and UHD content like Blu-ray video and some streaming services Standard HDMI, Mini HDMI, and Micro HDMI  DisplayPort DisplayPort HD and UHD audio and video Support HD digital video and audio signals. Popularized by Apple and commonly used by gamers to achieve very high refresh rates. Can be combined with USB and Thunderbolt ports DisplayPort Cable  Legacy Video Connectors VGA (Video Graphics Array) (DB-15) SD and HD analog video 15pin D-SUB Normally colored blue VGA Port DVI (Digital Visual Interface) VGA Connector SD and HD analog and digital video DVI-I supports analog and digital DVI-A only supports analog DVI-D only supports digital DVI Port DVI Connector  Video Adapters and Converters Video adapters can be used to change a video connector from one type to another. They are simple devices so they cannot convert analog to digital or vice versa. Video converters can change analog to digital signals since they are more sophisticated devices. DisplayPort to HDMI adapter DVI-I to VGA adapter VGA to HDMI converter Expansion Cards  Expansion Cards expand the hardware capabilities of a computer via PCIe or PCI slots Add or upgrade USB ports, thunderbolt ports, or storage connectors (SATA, PATA, NVMe) Add or upgrade wired or wireless network connections Add legacy ports like serial, firewire, dial-up modem, and parallel ports(printer ports) Video Cards Adds video processing power and video connectors Expansion Cards for video output Sound Cards Adds audio processing and audio connectors for audio output Capture card Adds video and audio processing and connectors for input  Video Cards Video/Graphic cards process image data and provide a connection for a display Commonly connects to the PCIe x16 slot They can be integrated into a motherboard or attached via a PCIe expansion slot. Dedicated PCIe video card Integrated video ports Displays  Resolution is defined by how many pixels make up the image on the screen. Standard definition (SD): 640 x 480 ⚫ High definition (HD): 1920 x 1080 Ultra high definition (UHD) 2K: 2560x1440 ⚫ 4K: 4096x2160 ⚫ 8K: 8192 × 4608 Refresh Rate defines how many screens can be drawn pre second. Display High refresh rates provide a smoother experience when watching videos and playing games or anything with a lot Terminology of motion. Low refresh rates can cause eye strain. Aspect Ration is the ratio of the width and height of the screen. 4:3 SDTV ⚫ 16:9 HDTV ⚫ 5:4 Computer ⚫ 16:10 Widescreen Computer  ▪ Brightness increases the intensity of the light which can improve a dim image. ▪ Viewing Angle will affect at what angles the screen will be viewable. A wider viewing angle is preferred. ▪ Response Rate is the time it takes a screen to shift the color of single pixel from black to white and back LCD again. Specifications ▪ Contrast Ratio is the measurement of how many steps between black to white on a screen. A higher contrast ration will produce an image with darker blacks and brighter whites. ▪ Color Depth defines how many bits are used to produce the color of a single pixel. More bits more colors.  Twisted nematic (TN) Fast response rate Low color accuracy Very poor viewing angles Lowest cost Vertical Alignment (VA) Slower response rate (slower than IPS) High color accuracy Good viewing angles Higher cost than TN LCD Screen Lower cost than IPS In-plane switching (IPS) Types Slow response rate High color accuracy Good viewing angles Higher cost than TN Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) Fast response rate High color accuracy Prone to burn-in Highest cost  Comparing LCD Types LCD: LCD with CCFL (Cold Cathode Florescent Lamp) backlight Thicker than the other types of flat screens. Requires an inverter to power the backlight. LED: LCD with LED backlight Newer style of LCDs that are thinner, have a shaper picture, and produce a better black levels. OLED: Organic LEDs produce the picture and the light in a single element. Thinnest display type. Provides the best picture, color, and has the lowest LCD LED OLED power consumption.  Projectors Projectors Can produce the biggest screen size “Throws” an image onto a screen or a wall Best used in low light situations Lumens are used to measure how bright a projector can 4K BenQ projector get. Bright rooms require a projector with high Lumens DLP (Digital Light Processing) is the most common technology used for projectors. Common Projector Symptoms Burned-out bulb Intermittent projector shutdown 250 inch screen  VR Headsets VR headsets provide an immersive experience by displaying an image which covers your entire field of view. They may require many connections 2 HDMI or DisplayPort for each screen, one for each eye. 1 USB or Thunderbolt connections for sensors that can be built into the headset to sense movements. Other connections might be required for additional sensors around the room.  ▪ No image on the screen ▪ Verify the screen is powered-on and that the power cable is plugged in ▪ Check the video connectors at both ends ▪ Check the input data source ▪ Try a known good video cable or power cable ▪ Spontaneous shutdown ▪ Displays and projectors can overheat which can cause them Display to shut down to prevent permanent damage Troubleshooting ▪ Dead pixels ▪ A pixel that has died will appear black dot on the screen ▪ This cannot be repaired; the screen will have to be replaced if it cannot be tolerated ▪ Dim image ▪ First check the brightness settings and the backlight settings on the display ▪ Backlights can burn out or an inverter can fail  ▪ Flashing screen ▪ Unsupported refresh rate ▪ Loose or physically damaged cable ▪ Distorted geometry ▪ LCD screens only support a single native resolution, Display when they are configured with a non-native resolution, they might appear stretched or squished. Troubleshooting ▪ Burn-in ▪ If a static image is left on a screen for too long an impression of the image can remain on the screen ▪ Prevent burn-in using a screen saver to dim the display or change the image being displayed Networking Basics  ▪ LANs (Local Area Networks) are the private networks found in homes, offices, and schools. LANs can vary in size from a single room to an entire building. ▪ SOHO Network ▪ Enterprise/Corporate Networks ▪ WLAN (Wireless Local Area Networks) can exist within a LAN or on their own. Local Area Network (LAN)  ▪ WANs (Wide Area Networks): When an organization needs to connect their office on one side of the world to the other, they connect through a WAN. ▪ The Internet is the public WAN that anyone can get access to. ▪ Site-to-Site connections are used by large organizations to connect their different locations over private WAN links. Wide Area Network (WAN) The Internet Site-to-Site  ▪ MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks) spread across a single city. ▪ Connections between the sites are often privately owned and managed by the organizations that use them. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)  ▪ CANs (Campus Area Networks) spread across a limited geographical distance like a college/corporate/military campus. ▪ It is privately owned and managed. Campus Area Network (CAN)  ▪ Personal Area Networks (PANs) are small networks usually made up of two devices. ▪ These devices can be connected over wired connections (Ethernet or USB) or wireless connections (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Infrared). Personal Area Network (PAN) PC to a PC over a wired connection PC to a smartphone over a wireless connection PC to a PC over a wireless connection PC to a printer over a wireless connection  ▪ A SAN (Storage Area Network) is a dedicated network that provides consolidated, scalable, and high- performance storage to servers. ▪ SANs offer several benefits over traditional direct- attached storage (DAS), including: ▪ Improved performance Storage Area ▪ By offloading storage processing from servers to the SAN ▪ Increased scalability Network (SAN) ▪ By adding additional storage devices to the network you can infinitely expand storage ▪ Improved availability ▪ SANs can improve availability by providing multiple paths to storage devices. ▪ Reduced costs ▪ SANs can reduce costs by consolidating storage resources and by eliminating the need for dedicated storage administrators.  Common Network Resources Devices Hubs Clients Switches Workstations Routers Laptops / Notebooks Firewalls Thin Clients / Terminals Wireless Access Points (WAP) Smartphones / Tablets Wireless LAN Controllers (WLC) Other Resources Printers Scanners Servers Video Surveillance Authentication (LDAP, RADIUS) Voice over IP (VoIP) Phones Files (SMB, FTP, SFTP, TFTP) Web (HTTP, HTTPS) Other Services Mail (POP, IMAP, SMTP) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Proxy (Caching, Web) Domain Name System (DNS) Telephony (VoIP) Fax Application (Databases, System Images, Updates) Network Cables  ▪ Transmission Speeds ▪ Copper cables achieve speeds of up to 40 Gigabits ▪ Fiber cables achieve speeds above 100 Gigabits ▪ Transmission Distance ▪ Copper cables can reach distances of 1,100 meters (3,609 feet), though most are limited to 100 meters (about 330 feet) ▪ Fiber cables can reach distances of 40 kilometers (25 miles) Copper vs Fiber ▪ Noise Immunity ▪ EMI (Electro-Magnetic Interference) is a condition when signals from a device or cable leak out and disrupt signals of another device or cable ▪ Copper cables are highly susceptible to interference ▪ Use shielded cables to protect against EMI ▪ Fiber cables are NOT susceptible to EMI since they transmit light rather than electrical pulses  Coaxial Cable (Coax) Coaxial Cable (Coax) is a round cable often used for cable in satellite and Copper conductor television connections. Its thick outer jacket makes it ideal for outdoor use. Insulation RG-6 is the most common type of coax cable. ▪ Advantages Metallic shield Shielding protects against EMI Long transmission distance (1100 meters) More affordable than fiber optic cables ▪ Disadvantages Outer jacker More expensive than twisted pair cable Copper core can snap if mishandled  Coax Connectors BNC Connector Secure locking connector Commonly used in the old bus and ring networks Also used on older, analog CCTV camera systems Connector Port F Connector Twisting hand screw commonly found on cable modems Connector Port  Twisted Pair Cables Twisted Pair cables consist of eight wires that are twisted into four pairs. This is the most used networking cable in homes and offices. Twisted Pair Types STP (Shield Twisted Pair): Has shielding to protect against EMI UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): Does NOT have shielding to protect against EMI Copper ▪ Advantage Copper conductor conductor Easier to install and manage than coax or fiber optic cables Color-coded STP has protection against EMI insulation Least expensive cable Per-pair metallic Color-coded ▪ Disadvantage shielding insulation Transmission distance is limited to Overall metallic 100 meters (328 feet) shielding UTP has no protection against EMI Outer jacker Outer jacket STP (Shield Twisted Pair) UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)  Twisted Pair Connectors RJ11 Connector 4 or 6 pin connector Found on dial-up modems and analog telephones Connector Port RJ45 Connector 8 pin connector Found on desktops, laptops, servers, routers, switches, wireless access points, IP phones, printers, IP cameras, game consoles, smart televisions, and many others Connector Port  Twisted Pair Categories Category Speed Distance Note 100 Used in older networks – needs to be replaced if still Cat 5 100 Mbps meters in use! 1,000 Mbps / 1 100 More twist per foot allows it to handle disturbances Cat 5e Gbps meters to achieve faster speeds 10,000 Mbps / 10 55 meters Gbps Includes a piece of plastic to separate the 4 wire Cat 6 100 1,000 Mbps / 1 pairs which minimizes crosstalk meters Gbps 10,000 Mbps / 100 Thicker wires to carry a more powerful signal for Cat 6a 10Gbps meters longer distance  Twisted Pair Wiring Standards There are two standard RJ45 pinouts for the individual arrangement of the wire connections to the RJ45 connectors within an Ethernet cable: the T568A and T568B standards. It does not matter which one is followed but in practice T568B is more common Tips Both standards start with a striped wire followed by a solid wire. This pattern continues from start to finish. The blue and brown pairs are always in the same location Only the orange and green pairs transpose their position T568A T568B  Fiber Optic Cable Fiber optic cables transmit data using light over flexible glass or plastic. Commonly used by WAN carriers and service providers’ networks because of their needs for long-distance connections. Some enterprises also them for high-speed long-range connections in their LANs ▪ Advantages NOT susceptible to EMI Fiber strand Longest transmission distance up to 40km Cladding Fastest speeds up to 255 Tbps ▪ Disadvantages Coating Most expensive cable Strengthening Most difficult to install layer Difficult to troubleshoot issues Expensive tools needed for Outer jacker installation and troubleshooting Can’t easily repair cables in the field Fiber Optic Cable  Fiber Optic Connectors ST Connector SC Connector SC (standard connector / ST (straight tip) subscriber connector / BNC style connector from square connector) the late 1980s and 1990s Snaps-in style connector Used in SMF installations Used in SMF and MMF installations LC Connector Dual LC Connector LC (Lucent connection / Dual LC local connection / little connector) Snaps-in style connector Snaps-in style connector Small form-factor connector Small form-factor connector Used in SMF and MMF Used in SMF and MMF installations installations  Network Cable Specifications EMI Max Cable Connector Max Speed Conductor Cost Protection Distance Coax BNC and F Shielding 1 Gigabit 1100 meters Copper $$$ STP RJ-45 & RJ-11 Shielding 10 Gigabits 100 meters Copper $$ UTP RJ-45 & RJ-11 None 10 Gigabits 100 meters Copper $ Single-Mode ST, SC, & LC Not susceptible > 100 Gigabits 40 kilometers Glass $$$$$$ Fiber Multimode Fiber SC, LC Not susceptible > 100 Gigabits 500 meters Glass $$$$$ Network Devices  Network Interface Cards (NICs) are used to connect devices to a network It’s common for NICs to be built-in into modern computer systems Each NIC has a unique 48-bit MAC address The link light and activity lights are used to trouble connections made to the NIC Link light verifies the cable is plugged in at both ends Network Activity light will blink as data goes through the interface Interface Card Link light Activity light (NIC) Connect NIC PCIe NIC  A Hub is a legacy device used to connect and manage wired communications in a LAN Communicates by broadcasting Uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) to manage the collisions Hub A B C 5 port hub Hub broadcasting data  A Switch is used to connect and manage wired communications in a LAN Forward frames based on MAC addresses Managed switches vs Unmanaged switches Managed switches can be configured Used in enterprise LANs to meet their needs for enforcing policies Provide additional functions like VLANs, port security, DHCP snooping, and dynamic ARP inspection Expensive Unmanaged switches can NOT be configured Switch Used in SOHO networks Lower cost 48 port managed switch Switch forwarding traffic  Routers are used to connect different broadcast domains to each other Commonly used to connect a LAN to a WAN (Site to site or the Internet) Forwards traffic based on IP Addresses in packets Can usually DHCP WAN Router Router Cisco 2901 branch router LAN  SOHO Routers are multifunction devices offering many features beyond routing Always includes wireless, switching, firewall security, and DHCP Can include content filtering, file server, print server, VPN client and server, and other features Used to connect a LAN to the Internet Forwards traffic based on IP Addresses in packets SOHO Router Linksys WRT54G WiFi Router ASUS GT-AX10000T WiFi Router  Firewalls are security devices used to prevent authorized access to a LAN from the Internet. Can be a hardware appliance or host-based software The Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) is a segment of the network that has a lower level of protection; this is used to intentionally expose a device to the Internet Public Internet Firewall Cisco ASA 5506-X Firewall Firewall Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) Private Fortinet Fortigate 100F Firewall LAN  Access Points (APs), sometimes called Wireless Access Points (WAPs), are used to provide and manage wireless communications in a LAN Uses Radio Frequencies (RF) to transmit host data Uses CSMA/CA to manage collisions Access Point Ubiquiti Unifi AX Pro Access Point (AP) Host A Netgear WAX204A Access Point AP Switch Host B  Wireless LAN controllers (WLC) are used to manage multiple lightweight access points through a single interface Simplifies the management of large wireless networks Provides additional security and performance features Can be a hardware, software, or cloud based Wireless LAN Controller (WLC) Cisco 3504 WLC  Wireless Range Extenders are used to expand the coverage of the current wireless network They operate on the same frequency and channel as the current wireless network and should have at least a 15% overlap Many access points can be configured to be extenders Wireless Range Extender Ubiquiti Unifi UAP-Beacon HD Extender Netgear EX6120 Extender TP Link EAP225 Extender  Wireless LAN controllers (WLC) are used to manage multiple lightweight access points through a single interface Simplifies the management of large wireless networks Provides additional security and performance features Wireless LAN Can be a hardware, software, or cloud based Controller Cisco 3504 WLC  PoE (Power over Ethernet) Power over Ethernet (PoE) allows you to power devices using just an Ethernet cable. A PoE switch is required if you want to power many PoE devices PoE devices are manufactured and sold with PoE built-in as a feature PoE injectors can be used to power a single PoE device if a PoE switch is NOT available PoE standards operate at different wattages, verify which is required for your devices PoE 802.3af PoE+ 802.3at PoE++ 802.3bt Min Wattage 12.95 watts 25.50 watts 51 watts Max Wattage 15.40 watts 30.0 watts 60 watts Max Current 350 mA 600 mA 600 mA PoE Power Injector  VLANs (Virtual LANs) VLANs (Virtual LANs) are used to segment a switch into multiple logical networks VLANs are statically assigned to managed switch ports Host can only communicate within their VLAN Make sure host are connected to the correct VLAN Sales VLAN 2 Shipping VLAN 3 Engineering VLAN 4 Finance VLAN 5  VPN (Virtual Private Network) A Virtual Private Network (VPN) provides secure remote access to a private network via the public Internet via an encrypted tunnel. VPN Types: Site-to-Site Connects an entire network to another network over the internet Client-to-Site Connects an outside host securely to the internal private network over the internet  SDN (Software-Defined Networking) Software-Defined Networking SDN Applications SDNs provide centralized management of network infrastructure by making use of network controllers Application Layer Northbound IDS/IPS, load balancers, proxy servers, and firewalls Interface Control Layer Communicates instruction to the network devices based on Controllers information gathered from the SDN applications Infrastructure Layer Spine-Leaf switches are managed by the controller to provide Southbound links and access to the host and devices Interface Management Plane Provides an interface to the controller via SSH, HTTP/HTTPS, or an application programming interface (API) Network Objects Network Services and Protocols  The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is used to assign various configurations to the host of a network. Common configurations: Scope is the range of addresses the server can assign Example: 192.168.50.100 – 192.168.50.250 DHCP (Dynamic Exclusion range is the range of addresses the server can NOT assign Host Reservations allow you to bind a MAC address to a Configuration specific IP address Allows DHCP to consistently assign the same IP Protocol) address to a device without having to manually configure a static IP address Lease time defines how long an IP address is “owned” by a host before it can be assigned to another host Available leases identify how many addresses are still available from the scope  DHCP Process 4-Step DHCP Process 1. Client: Discover Broadcast 2. Server: Offer Unicast 3. Client: Request Broadcast 4. Server: Acknowledge Unicast Common Configurations: IP address Subnet mask DNS server Default gateway TFTP server and others  DNS (Domain Name System) Domain Name Service (DNS): provides name to IP address resolution for a host. DNS servers can be in your LAN or out on Where is comptia.org ? the Internet A host is normally assigned a DNS server Answer: 104.18.17.29 via DHCP, but it can also be assigned manually DNS Server DNS Name Types Host Host names identify a specific device in a network Hostname = workstation01 Domain names identify a specific network comptia.org Domain name = companyx.lan Web Server Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) identify a specific in a specific network FQDN = workstation01.companyx.lan  DNS Record Types Record Type Description Example A Resolves a name to an IP Address example.com => 123.234.34.56 example.com => AAAA Resolves a name to an IPv6 Address 2101:2345:6789:abcd:ef01:2345:6789:abcd v=spf1 ip4:40.113.200.201 Sender Policy Framework list of hostnames/IP and IPv6 addresses that TXT (SPF) ip6:2001:db8:85a3:8d3:1319:8a2e:370:7348 include:company.com mail can be sent from ~all email_provider._domainkey_.companyx.com Domain Keys Identified Mail provides authentication of mail being sent TXT (DKIM) v=DKIM1; p=76E629F05F70 9EF665853333 EEC3F5ADE69A and received to prevent spam 2362BECE4065 8267AB2FC3CB 6CBE Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting, and Conformance TXT (DMARC) v=DMARC1; p=reject; rua=mailto:[email protected] controls what happens if authentication fails to prevent spam CNAME Canonical Name records resolves an alias to a domain name bn.com => barnesandnoble.com MX Resolves a name to a mail exchanger (email server) imap.gmail.com => 142.250.31.108  TCP vs UDP 16-bit source port 16-bit destination port TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) 32-bit sequence number Reliable 32-bit acknowledgment number Connection-oriented 24 - 60 bytes 4-bit Virtual circuit header Reserved Flags 16-bit window size Sequenced length Acknowledgements 16-bit TCP checksum 16-bit urgent pointer 24 - 60 bytes (high overhead) Options Data UDP (User Datagram Protocol) Unreliable TCP Segment Connectionless 16-bit source port 16-bit destination port 8 bytes No virtual circuit 16-bit TCP checksum 16-bit urgent pointer Un-sequenced No acknowledgments Data 8 bytes (lightweight) UDP Segment  Filesharing Application Protocols Application Protocol Port Details File Transfer Protocol is used to share files with users in a LAN or a WAN FTP TCP 20, 21 Supports authentication, authorization, and directory browsing Trivial File Transfer Protocol is used to push(put) or pulls(get) files from a server TFTP UDP 69 Commonly use to manage devices like IP phones, routers and switches Does NOT support authentication, authorization, or directory browsing Secure File Transfer Protocol is a secure implementation of FTP SFTP TCP 22 Supports all the same functions as FTP but with encryption SFTP is an extension of SSH which is why they use the same port number Secure Copy Protocol is a secure implementation of TFTP SCP TCP 22 Supports all the same functions as TFTP but with encryption TFTP is an extension of SSH which is why they use the same port number Server Message Block provides file sharing, network browsing, and printing services SMB TCP 445 Commonly used in Windows networks but supported in Linux, macOS, and many other devices CIFS(Common Internet File System) is an open implementation used on Linux and macOS Apple Filling Protocol is an Apple proprietary file sharing protocol available exclusively on AFP TCP 548 macOS  Remote Access & Cryptographic Protocols Remote Access Protocols Application Protocol Port Details Telnet provides remote command line access to interact with a server Telnet TCP 23 Considered insecure and should no longer be used, use SSH instead Secure Shell provides encrypted remote command line access to interact with a server SSH TCP 22 SSH version 2 added SFTP and SCP support Remote Desktop Protocol is used to securely remotely access a Windows desktop RDP TCP/UDP 3389 Formally known as Windows terminal services Cryptographic Protocols Application Protocol Port Details Secure Socket Layer is a now deprecated cryptographic protocol used in various network SSL TCP 465 communications like email, web, and VPN to name a few Transport Layer Security is the replacement for SSL. It supports all the same features with additional TLS TCP 995 security features.  Web & Email Protocols Web Protocols Application Protocol Port Details HTTP TCP 80 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol is used to transmit webpages HTTPS TCP 443 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure is used to securely transmit encrypted webpages using SSL or TLS Email Protocols Application Protocol Port Details POP3 TCP 110 Post Office Protocol downloads incoming mail from a server IMAP4 TCP 143 Internet Message Access Protocol synchronizes incoming mail from a server SMTP TCP 25 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol sends outgoing mail to a server SMTP TLS TCP 587 Secure SMTP over TLS encrypts outgoing mail being sent to a server IMAP SSL TCP 993 Secure IMAP over SSL encrypts mail being synchronized from a server POP3 SSL TCP 995 Secure POP3 over SSL encrypts mail being downloaded from a server  Network Management Protocols Application Protocol Port Details NTP UDP 123 Network Time Protocol provides time synchronization DNS TCP/UDP 53 Domain Name System resolves names to IPv4 and IPv6 addresses Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol provides various configurations to clients in an IP network DHCP UDP 67/68 via broadcast 67 is the server port, and 68 is the client port Bootstrap Protocol provides boot configuration data to clients BootP UDP 68 Used to boot an operating systems over an IP network Also used to deploy system images over a network Simple Network Management Protocol is used to query, configure, and monitor host in a LAN SNMP UDP 161/162 SNMPv3 encrypts communication where previous versions did not Service Location Protocol provides network device discovery, allowing computers to find file SLP TCP/UDP 427 shares and printers  Network Management Protocols (continued) Application Protocol Port Details Lightweight Directory Access Protocol is used in domain-based network environments to LDAP TCP/UDP 389 facilitate system and user management. LDAPS TCP 636 Lightweight Directory Access Protocol over SSL is a secure version of LDAP Syslog is used to store system logs on a central server to assist with troubleshooting network Syslog UDP 514 issues Network Basic Input/Output System provides various network communication features in a Windows network NetBIOS TCP/UDP 137/139 Used in Windows before IP networking NetBIOS over TCP/IP is still used in Windows Network Addressing  IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) Addressing IPv4 Address: 32-bit address used to communicate Reserved Classful Networks Octet: 8-bit segmentation used for IP Class 1st Octet Notes addresses. Prefix/CIDR: Define how many bits are Class D 224 - 239 Reserved for multicasting reserved to identifying the network. Class E 240 - 255 Reserved for scientific research CIDR (Classless Interdomain Routing) Useable Classful Networks Class 1st Octet Number of Host Subnet Mask Prefix/CIDR Class A 1 – 126 16.7 Million 255.0.0.0 /8 Class B 128 – 191 65 Thousand 255.255.0.0 /16 Class C 192 – 223 254 255.255.255.0 /24  IPv4 Unicast Addresses Unicast addresses provide one to one communication. A unique unicast address is assigned to each host interface. Unicast Type Address Range Description Class A: 1.0.0.0 – 126.255.255.255 Public IP Address Class B: 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255 Public addresses are designated to be used on the Internet Class C: 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255 Class A: 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255 Private IP Address Class B: 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255 Private addresses are designated to be used in LAN Class C: 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 Automatic Private APIPA addresses are self assigned by a host when a DHCP request 169.254.0.0 – 169.254.255.255 IP Address(APIPA) fails