Complete Modern India History PDF

S. No. Chapter Name Page No. 1. Advent of Europeans in India 2 2. India on the eve of British Conquest 5 3. Expansion and conso...

S. No. Chapter Name Page No. 1. Advent of Europeans in India 2 2. India on the eve of British Conquest 5 3. Expansion and consolidation of British power in India 8 4. People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857 15 5. The Revolt of 1857 19 6. Socio-Religious Reform Movements: General Features 23 7. A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements 25 8. Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India 30 9. Indian National Congress: Foundation and the Moderate Phase 32 10. Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909) 34 11. First Phase of Revolutionary Activities (1907-1917) 38 12. First World War and Nationalist Response 39 13. Emergence of Gandhi 41 14. Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Aandolan 44 Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary Activities and 15. 46 Other New Forces 16. Simon Commission and the Nehru Report 50 17. Civil Disobedience Movement and Round Table Conference 52 18. Debates on the Future Strategy after CDM 56 19. Congress Rule in Provinces 58 20. Nationalist Response in the Wake of World War II 59 21. Quit India Movement, Demand for Pakistan and the INA 62 22. Post War National Scenario 64 23. Independence with Partition 68 24. Constitutional, Administrative and Judicial Developments 70 25. Survey of British Policies in India 75 26. Economic Impact of British Rule in India 77 27. Development of Indian Press 79 28. Development of Education 80 29. Peasant Movements 1857-1947 82 30. The Movement of the Working Class 84  1 - Advent of Europeans in India Portuguese in India: The reason and circumstances to find a sea route to India: a) Spirit of renaissance in Europe. b) Since Arabs started ruling Egypt and Persia and controlled sea and roads to India, Europeans needed to find another route to India via sea. c) Art of ship building & navigation, increase in cultivation which ultimately increased prosperity, simultaneously increased the demand for oriental luxury goods. d) Increase in supply of meat requiring spices for preservation. e) Under a treaty with Spain, Portugal could claim and occupy in east. From trading to ruling: Vasco Da Gama: Arrived in India at Calicut in May 1498. Returned in 1501 and established a trading factory at Cannanore and later fortified it. Second visit in 1502. Francisco De Almeida: First Portugal governor in India in 1505 who is known for his Blue Water Policy (Cartaze System – A Naval trade licence or pass) Alfonso de Albuquerque: Second governor known as the real founder of Portuguese power in India. Acquired Goa in 1510, Abolished Sati and initiated the policy of marrying the natives of India. Nino da Cunha: Became governor in 1529. Shifted the capital from Cochin to Goa. Killed Bahadur Shah, ruler of Gujarat in 1537 Favourable conditions for Portuguese: Indian rulers were divided among themselves. None had navy. They had better war equipment. Portuguese State: They occupied coasts around Goa, four ports from Mumbai to Daman and Diu to Gujarat and Hooghly in Bengal (which they later lost to Mughals in 1632). In south, Mangalore, Cannanore, Cochin and Calicut. Portuguese Administration in India: The governor (Viceroy), for 3 years, ruled with a council. Religious Policy of the Portuguese: Hatred for Muslims, zeal to spread Christianity. Earlier tolerant towards Hindus, after the inquisition of Goa, they oppressed Hindus too. Hoping to convert Akbar to Christianity, they sent priests to his court on his request. But that didn’t happen. Decline of Portuguese: Religious policies of conversion to Christianity alienated Hindus and Muslims. Rise of Marathas as their neighbours, dishonest trade practices, discovery of Brazil. Knowledge of sea route to India did not remain a secret anymore as the Dutch & the English also discovered it. Their arrogance and violence earned them the title of sea pirates which brought animosity of rulers. Rampant corruption Significance of Portuguese: Emergence of European era, naval power. In military, use of body armour, guns, cannon on ships, multi-decked ships, mapping. Silversmith & Goldsmith at Goa, introduced European culture and art. Dutch in India: Dutch Settlements: Founded first factory in Masulipatnam (Andhra) in 1605. More factories at Surat, Bimlipatam, Karaikal, Chinsura, Baranagar, Kasimbazar etc. Traded in Silk, cotton, indigo, textiles, Saltpetre, opium and rice. Anglo-Dutch Rivalry: After a prolonged war between the Dutch & the English, both agreed in 1667 to not interfere in each other’s colonies which were Indonesia and India respectively. Decline of the Dutch in India: In the battle of Hooghly, 1759, the Dutch got defeated by English. They left India for a more profitable colony of theirs which was Indonesia. The English: Arrival of the English: By a charter on December 31, 1600, the East India Company came to India for trading. Progress of English Company: Established the first factory at Surat in 1613. Bombay was given as dowry to the King of Charles after his marriage to the daughter of King of Portugal in 1662 which solved Portuguese problem. The Dutch, after defeat in the battle of Hooghly, started focusing on Indonesia. So the conditions were ripe for The English to prosper in India. Foothold in Bengal: First factory established in Hooghly in 1651 & started trading for an annual payment of Rs. 3000 and then abandoned in 1690. Acquired the zamindari of three villages Of Sutanuti, Gobindpur & Kalikata and built a fort (Later called Fort William). The Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar’s farmans (Magna Carta) contained following terms: Company’s import and export were exempted from duties excepting annual payment of Rs. 3000. Permission to issue dastaks (passes) for the transportation of goods. Permission to rent more land around Calcutta Coins of company to have currency throughout the Mughal Empire The French: Foundation of French centres in India: Last Europeans to come to India for trade. They founded the French East India Company in 1668 in Surat and another factor in Masulipattanam in 1669. Pondicherry became the nerve centre of French. Setbacks to the French company: Outbreak of war with the Dutch in which The Dutch captured Pondicherry in 1693. The Dutch returned Pondicherry with the treaty of Ryswich in 1697. War of succession in Spain and the death of Francois Martin Anglo-French War (The Carnatic Wars): Carnatic was the name given to the Coromandel Coast & its hinterland. First Carnatic War (1740-48): The English navy seized some French ships. To which French retaliated by seizing Madras in 1746. Ended in 1748 with a Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle, under which Madras was handed back to the English and the French got their territories back in north America. Second Carnatic War (1749-54): It was a result of the two sides supporting two different claims of princes for the throne of Deccan and Carnatic. Both the parties kept all the original territories at the end of the war that they originally had. It became evident that the countenance of Indian authority was no longer necessary for European success; rather Indian authority itself was becoming dependent on European support. Third Carnatic War (1758-63): Started as the famous seven years war in Austria. The decisive battle of Wandiwash (Vandavasi) was won by the English in 1760 and the French lost their influence in India. Although, the Treaty of Peace of Paris (1763) restored to the French their factories in India, the French political influenced disappeared after the war. In terms of consolidation of power in India, the English victory in Wandiwash cannot be termed lower than the importance of the Battle of Plassey (1757) because after this war, there was no direct threat to the English power from any European countries. Causes of English success and French failure: The private nature of the English company made sure that the decisions could be taken more instantly and without waiting for government approval. Whereas the French company being a state concern, had to deal with delays in decision-making processes. The English navy was superior to the French navy. The English had three important places whereas the French held just one. The English along with their territorial interests never neglected their economic interests. Thus, they always had the required funds to meet those war expenses whereas the French focused more on territorial expansion rather than economic expansion. The English had superior commanders. The Danes: The Danish East India Company was established in 1616 and founded their factory at Tranquebar near Tanjore in 1620. Later these were sold to the British East India Company in 1845. They are better known for their missionary activities than for commerce. Why the British succeeded against other European powers: i. Structure and nature of the trading companies: The English company was a privately owned company governed by a board of directors whose members were annually elected. Whereas other European companies were state owned enterprise which could not do much for their own good as the monarch controlled a bigger part of it. ii. Naval Superiority: The royal navy was not only the largest but also the strongest. iii. Industrial revolution: With the industrial revolution came new machines which improved the English economy and infrastructure. These revolutions reached other European nations late which helped British a lot. iv. Military skill and discipline: Well trained and disciplined army of the British tried new tactics in war which other nations lacked. v. Stable government: Unlike other European nations which were going through some unstable government at centre, The English enjoyed a relatively stable government which helped the company keep its hegemony intact. vi. Lesser zeal for religion: The English were not very interested in spreading Christianity and would rather focus on their economical interest as compared to other European countries.  2 - India on the eve of British Conquest Challenges before the Mughals: External Challenges: Nadir Shah, a Persian emperor, attacked India in 1738-39 and conquered Lahore by defeating the Mughal Army. He took with him Peacock throne and the Kohinoor. Ahmad Shah Abdali, successor of Nadir Shah, invaded India multiple times between 1748 & 1767. His successor was expelled from Delhi by Raghunath Rao, a Maratha Chief. Abdali defeated the Marathas in the third battle of Panipat in 1761 as revenge. Weak rulers after Aurangzeb (An internal Challenge): Bahadur Shah I (Shah-i-Bekhabar) ruled from 1709 to 1712. Following his pacific policy, he released all the captive princes and the Rajput chiefs were confirmed in their respective states. Jahandar Shah ruled with the help of Zulfikar Khan from March, 1712 to February, 1713. He introduced izara system (contractors paid a fixed sum to the state but could extract any amount from peasants) to improve financial condition and abolished Jaziya. Farrukhsiyar became emperor with the help of Sayyid Brothers (Abdulla Khan & Hussain Ali, known as ‘King Makers’) and ruled from 1713 to 1719. He gave farmans to British in 1717. Muhammad Shah (1719-48) became king with the help of Sayyid Brothers but later killed them. He lost the battle of Karnal against Nadir Shah. Shah Alam II (1759-1806) – During his reign, there were two decisive battles (Third battle of Panipat, 1761 & Battle of Buxar, 1764). By the treaty of Allahabad (1765), he issued a farman granting to the company the Diwani rights (the right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar & Orissa. Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857) – the revolt of 1857 made a futile attempt to declare him the Emperor of India. He was the last ruler of Mughal Empire. Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire: ❖ The later Mughals were weak and worthless who neglected the administration of the state. ❖ With the absence of a definite law of succession, there always occurred a war of succession which led to weaken the stability of the empire. ❖ Zamindars became powerful who tried to carve out independent kingdoms for themselves. ❖ Nobility was divided among themselves on the basis of religion, homeland and tribe which made them work for their personal interests rather than the empire itself. ❖ The deterioration of army also proved disastrous for the empire. ❖ The empire was too vast to be efficiently governed in the absence of a strong ruler. ❖ Aurangzeb’s religious policy made other sections of the society angry which led to revolts in the empire. ❖ Rajputs struggle against the empire and the growing ambition and power of the Marathas adversely affected the Mughal might. Survey of regional kingdoms: Hyderabad: Founder of the state was Kilich Khan in 1724 after killing Mubariz Khan, the viceroy of Deccan.  Awadh: Saadat Khan was the founder of Awadh in 1722. Bengal: Murshid Quli Khan was the founder of Bengal state. Mysore: It was ruled by Wodeyars. Various powers fought for this state but in the end, Haider Ali came out victorious. Kerala: Martand Verma was the founder of Kerala state. The Jats: Churaman and Badan Singh were the founders of the Jat state of Bharatpur. But under Suraj Mal, the state reached its zenith. The Sikhs: Guru Govind Singh transformed the Sikhs into a militant sect in defence of their religion. A strong Punjab kingdom was established by Ranjit Singh. He conquered Lahore in 1799 and Amritsar in 1802. By the treaty of Amritsar (1809), Ranjit Singh and The English made Sutlej River the boundary of their states. The Marathas: Under the Peshawas, the Marathas uprooted Mughal authority and established their rule. After facing the setback in the third battle of Panipat (1761), the Marathas quickly recovered and offered great challenge to the authority of The English. Socio-Economic Conditions: During Eighteenth century, India became a land of contrast where abject poverty and luxury existed side by side. But it got worse during the British rule. ❖ Agriculture: Peasants worked hard in the fields but did not get adequate reward for themselves. They were forced to pay a huge chunk of their produce as taxes to zamindars. ❖ Trade and industry: In eighteenth century, India’s export was more than its import. It exported items such as Cotton textiles, raw silk, hardware, indigo and imported pearls, dates, honey, gold, tea, iron etc. Ship building also flourished in India at Maharashtra, The Andhra region and Bengal. ❖ Status of Education: Education system was archaic and was confined to literature, law, religion and excluded the study of physical and natural sciences, technology and geography. Some famous centres for Sanskrit education were Varanasi, Mithila, Nadia (Bengal) and Utkala (Odisha). Azimabad (Patna) was a famous centre for Persian education. ❖ Societal Set-up: There existed many types of societal set-up during the 18th century. i. Many caste, many sects: People were divided among themselves in caste, religion, region, tribe and language. The family system was primarily patriarchal. The choice of profession was mainly determined by caste considerations but there existed some exceptions to this in some parts of the country. Not only Hindus, Muslims were also divided among themselves not only in Shia or Sunni but also in Irani, Afghan, Turani and Hindustani nobles. Some religious conversions also took place during this period. ii. Position of women in society: In the patriarchal society of India, women possessed little individuality of their own. Societal customs like Purdah, Sati, Child Marriage, dowry and polygamy existed. iii. Menace of slavery: Slavery was prevalent in the society and some people were compelled to sell their offspring due to economic distress, famines, natural calamities and extreme poverty. Marriages took place among the slaves and the offspring was considered a free citizen which shows that their condition was way better than that in Europe. European trading companies also bought slaves from Indian markets of Bengal, Assam and Bihar. ❖ Development in Art, Architecture and Culture: Asaf-ud-Daula built Bada Imambara (1784) at Lucknow. Sawai Jai Singh built pink city of Jaipur and five astronomical observatories. Growth of Urdu language and poetry took place. Some prominent Urdu poets were Mir, Sauda, Nazir and Mirza Ghalib.  3- Expansion and consolidation of British power in India Was the British Conquest accidental or intentional? : There are many opinions regarding this argument. One argument which suggests that the British conquest of India was accidental and in a “fit of absent-mindedness” and Britishers were drawn into Indian battles. By which, they were forced to rule us. This argument is led by John Seeley. The other group suggests that Britishers came to India with an intention to rule and did it bit by bit over the years. Both of these opinions seem far-fetched and overstating their viewpoints. Initially, perhaps, the company officials started acquiring territory just to promote and protect their trade interests. They came to realise how easily they could pit one king against another, one group against another and by doing so, they started acquiring territories. But later, they worked on a plan as how to establish an empire in India. When did the British period begin in India? : Some historians see the year 1757 (Battle of Plassey), some see 1764 (Battle of Buxar) and some see 1764 (Third battle of Panipat) as the year when the British period began in India. But to choose one particular year as the beginning year of the British period in India, will be a mistake since all these instances combined and some other factors were there too which helped them consolidate their rule in India. Causes of British Success in India: The causational forces and factors for the success of the British are as follows: a) Superior arms, military and strategy: Firearms such as muskets and cannons used by Britishers were far better than their Indian counterparts. b) Better military discipline and regular salary c) Civil discipline and fair selection system: Company troops were hired on the basis of skill and merit whereas the Indian administration and military officers were appointed on the basis of caste and personal relations as a result their ability was doubtful. d) Brilliant leadership and support of second line leaders: Britishers were blessed with some brilliant rulers such as Clive, Warren Hastings, and Dalhousie etc. and some brilliant second line leaders as well such as Arthur Wellesley and Sir Eyre Coote etc. The Indian side too had some brilliant leaders such as Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan and Jaswant Rao Holkar etc. But they lacked the team of second line trained personnel. Moreover, they were fighting as much against one another against the British. The concept of ‘India’ was lacking which resulted in Indian rulers siding with Britishers against one of the local rulers. e) Strong financial backup f) Nationalist Pride British Conquest of Bengal: In 1741, Alivardi Khan became the governor of Bengal. During his time, Britishers were granted the permission to dig a trench around their factory ‘Fort William’. He ruled for 15 years and was succeeded by his grandson, Siraj-ud-daula. The company fortified Calcutta without the Nawab’s permission which prompted Siraj-ud-daula to take an action against the company. He attacked and seized the English fort at Calcutta. Siraj-ud-daula is believed to have imprisoned 146 Englishmen in a very small room and out of which 123 died due to suffocation. This story is propagated as ‘Black Hole Tragedy’. By conspiring against Siraj-ud-daula, Robert Clive made deal with Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh, Jagat Seth and Omichand that Mir Jafar would be made the king and he will act as the English dictate. The battle of Plassey was won by the Britishers even before the war. Siraj-ud-daula was murdered and Mir Jafar was made the king. He gave large sums of money and zamindari of 24 parganas to the English. The English had no responsibility but all the power whereas the king had all the responsibility but no power with him. Resultantly, he got irritated by the interference of Clive. He entered into a conspiracy with the Dutch at Chinsura but the Dutch were defeated and his plan was foiled. The treachery and his failure to make the due payments to the company annoyed the English. Mir Kasim, son-in-law of Mir Jafar, signed a deal with the English in 1760 for which he was made the king. Mir Kasim was annoyed with the English for misusing dastak farman (Dastak was a farman for the company to trade duty free and under this pretext, the employees of the company were also trading duty free.) Mir Kasim decided to abolish the duty altogether which resulted in a tussle between the company and the king. Mir Kasim fled (Consequently Mir Jafar was made the king again in Mir Kasim’s absence.) and formed a confederacy with the Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-daulah and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II to fight against The English. The combined armies of all the three kings were defeated by the English under Major Hector Munro at Buxar in 1764. The treaty of Allahabad: Robert Clive concluded two important treaties at Allahabad in August 1765 – one with the Nawab of Awadh and the other with the Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II. Shuja-ud-daulah agreed to surrender Allahabad and Kara to Emperor Shah Alam II, pay Rs. 50 Lakh to the company as war indemnity & give Balwant Singh, Zamindar of Banaras, full possession of his estate. Shah Alam II agreed to reside in Allahabad under Company’s protection and issue a farman granting the diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the East India Company for a fixed sum. By not annexing Awadh, Robert Clive made Awadh a buffer state against foreign invasions. Mysore’s resistance to the company: Haider Ali, born in 1721, started his career as a horseman. He became the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761. To counter Marathas and other invaders, he set up an arms factory at Dindigul (Tamil Nadu) and introduced western methods of training for his army with the help of French. First Anglo-Mysore war (1767-69): The English entered into a confederacy with the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas against Haider Ali. Haider acted diplomatically and paid the Marathas to turn them neutral and promised the Nizam to cede him the conquered territories. He then attacked the Nawab of Arcot (The English fought with him against Haider.). Finally, Haider forced the English to conclude Treaty of Madras, 1769. Haider Ali was promised the help of the English in case any other ruler attacked him. Second Anglo-Mysore war (1780-84): The English didn’t help Haider Ali when he was attacked. Haider found French much more accommodating and took their help. This pissed off The English and they tried to capture Mahe port. It was under Haider’s protection and he considered it a direct challenge to his authority. Thus, begun the second Anglo-Mysore war. Haider and the English kept fighting an inconclusive war. In the meantime, Haider died of cancer in 1782 and his son, Tipu Sultan, carried on the war but with no success. Finally, they signed the treaty of Mangalore (1784) and the war came to an end. Third Anglo-Mysore war (1790-92): A dispute arose between Tipu and the state of Travancore. The English, siding with Travancore, attacked Tipu. Tipu was defeated in Seringapatam by the combined armies of The English, the Marathas & the Nizam. He signed the treaty of Seringapatam. Under this, nearly half of his territory was taken away from him. A war damage of three crore rupees was to be paid in instalments and against which, his two sons were taken as hostages by the English. Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (April 17, 1799 – May 4, 1799): Tipu paid the war damage and got his sons released. Later, Lord Wellesley accused him of treachery and sending of emissaries to Arabia, Afghanistan, Kabul etc. The English got help from the Marathas (promised half of territories) and the Nizam (already signed the subsidiary alliance) and defeated Tipu in several places. He died fighting bravely. The state of Mysore was turned into a subsidiary alliance after his death. Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy: Peshwa Bajirao I had started a confederacy under which each prominent family under a chief was assigned a sphere of influence which he or she was supposed to rule and conquer. The Maratha family which emerged prominent were – (i) The Gaekwad of Baroda, (ii) The Bhonsle of Nagpur, (iii) The Holkars of Indore, (iv) The Sindhias of Gwalior, and (v) The Peshwas of Poona. After the defeat at Panipat (1761) and the death of Madhavrao I (1772), weakened the control of Peshwas over the confederacy. Though they united on occasion, more often they quarrelled among themselves which weakened their positions even more. First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82): After killing the legal heir, Narayanrao, his uncle, Raghunathrao, named himself the next Peshwa. Narayanrao’s son was the legal heir and to support his cause, Raghunathrao was pressurized. Unwilling to give up, he sought help from The British at Bombay and signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775. The British Calcutta Council annulled the treaty and made a new treaty (Treaty of Purandhar, 1776) with Nana Phadanvis renouncing Raghunathrao. The Bombay government rejected this and gave refuge to Raghunathrao. In 1777, Nana Phadanvis violated his treaty with Calcutta Council by granting French a port. This made the English angry and they retaliated accordingly by sending a force towards Pune. In the beginning, Mahadji Sindhia succeeded in defeating the English army and had them sign the Treaty of Wadgaon. But later on, Warren Hastings, the governor-general in Bengal, rejected this treaty and attacked the Marathas again. The Marathas were defeated and had to sign the Treaty of Salbai in 1782 by which the Marathas pledged not to support any other European nation and give each other their respective areas back. Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05): There occurred an internal rift in the Marathas and the defeated party of Bajirao II (Son of Raghunathrao), signed the Treaty of Bassein (1802) with the English. As per the treaty, the Marathas were to accept subsidiary alliance & were to surrender the city of Surat. Those who tried to oppose it such as Sindhia & Bhonsle were defeated under Arthur Wellesley and were made to sign a separate subsidiary alliance. They were basically reduced to British Vassalage (a position of subordination or submission). This subsidiary alliance with the Marathas made the English very much powerful. It was considered a major development. Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19): The Pindaris, were attached to the Marathas as mercenaries. But since the Marathas could not employ them, they started to loot neighbouring states including those of the English. Owning to this, the English charged the Marathas with giving shelter to the Pindaris. All the Marathas saw the treaty of Bassein and the attack against Pindaris as an attack on their sovereignty. They all again formed a confederacy and attacked the English to gain their lost prestige. But the Peshwa was defeated at Khirki (Treaty of Poona, 1817), Bhonsle at Sitabuldi, and Holkar at Mahidpur (Treaty of Mandasor, 1818). After the final surrender of the Peshwa in June 1818, the Maratha confederacy was dissolved. The Peshwaship was abolished. Why the Marathas Lost: There were several reasons for the Marathas’ defeat. a. Inept Leadership: Maratha leaders such as Bajirao II, Daulatrao Sindhia & Jaswantrao Holkar were worthless and selfish whereas English leaders such as Elphinstone, John Malcolm & Arthur Wellesley were very skilled. b. Defective nature of Maratha state: The cohesion of the Marathas was not organic but accidental and artificial. The confederacy was not a well thought plan which could cater to the needs of all. It was based on the religio-national movement.  c. Loose Political set-up: Powerful chiefs such as the Gaikwad, the Holkar, the Sindhia and the Bhonsle carved out semi-independent kingdoms for themselves and paid only lip service to the authority of Peshwa. Not only did they fight with others but also fought among themselves which proved detrimental to the Maratha state. d. Inferior Military system e. Unstable Economic Policy: The Marathas always relied on the traditional ways of raising funds through plunder & taxation. There were no industries or foreign trade opening in the reign of the Marathas which resulted in a loose setup of economic state. f. Superior English Diplomacy and Espionage: The diplomacy of divide and rule and better espionage system of the English gave them an upper hand during wars. They very well knew the potentialities, strengths, weaknesses and military methods of their foes. g. Progressive English Outlook Conquest of Sindh: In the 1783, a Baluch tribe named Talpuras, under the leadership of Mir Fath (Fatah) Ali Khan, acquired complete hold over Sindh by defeating the Prince of Kallora. After the death of Fath Ali Khan in 1800, his brothers (Char Yar), also known as the Amirs, divided the territory among themselves. It was believed by the British that Napoleon was conspiring with Tipu Sultan to invade India. Negotiations for trade with Fath Ali Khan failed which was started by Lord Wellesley. In June 1807, the Treaty of Eternal Friendship was signed between Sindh & the British to exclude French from Sindh and exchange agents at each other’s court. The treaty was renewed in 1820 to include Americans in the list of exclusion. Another treaty was signed in 1832 to provide free passage to the English traders and travellers and use of Indus for trading passage provided they held passport. Later in 1938 by posing Ranjit Singh, the ruler of Punjab, as a threat to them, another treaty was signed by which the English would station their troops in their capital at the expense of the Amirs. And in year 1939, they were compelled to accept subsidiary alliance and to help The English fight the Afghans. After the first Anglo-Afghan war (1839-42), they were charged with treasonable activities and face some humiliating behaviour. They rose in revolt but were soon made captives and banished from Sindh. In 1843, under Governor-General Ellenborough, Sindh was merged into the British Empire. The conquest of Sindh has been criticised for the fact that in the first Anglo-Afghan war, The English suffered heavily at the hands of the Afghans and to compensate for this loss, Sindh was annexed and merged into the British Empire. Conquest of Punjab: Ranjit Singh belonged to Sukarchakiya misl (state or equal). At the age of 19, he became the governor of Lahore in 1799. He acquired Jammu and Amritsar in 1805. The looming threat of an attack by land route of France and Russia alarmed the English and after many negotiations, the Treaty of Amritsar, 1809 was signed with Ranjit Singh. The treaty checked his aggression past the river Sutlej, making it the boundary line between Punjab and the British Empire. In 1838, he was compelled to sign to the Tripartite Treaty. Ranjit Singh died in 1839 and with his death the process of the decline of the empire began. After the death of Ranjit Singh, his three sons were also killed and there started a war of succession which resulted in inefficient administration and corruptive behaviour of officers made sure that the army was not paid regularly. All this seemed very favourable to the English for an attack and annexation of the empire. First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46): The outbreak of the first Anglo-Sikh war has been attributed to the action of the Sikh army crossing the river Sutlej. This was seen as n aggressive manoeuvre and they declared war. Due to the treachery of the commander Lal Singh, the Sikh army faced defeat. The Sikhs had to sign the Treaty of Lahore (1846). Under this treaty, the Sikhs had to pay war indemnity, had to cede the Jalandhar Doab, strength of army to be reduced and since the Sikhs could not pay the entire war indemnity, Kashmir including Jammu was sold. The Sikhs rebelled again and were suppressed easily. The Treaty of Bhairowal was signed and a council consisting of 8 sardars and presided over by Henry Lawrence was placed. Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49): The defeat in the first Anglo-Sikh war and the provisions of the treaties of Lahore and Bhairowal were very humiliating for the Sikhs. Mulraj, the governor of Multan, revolted on being replaced. Sher Singh was sent to suppress the revolt but he himself joined Mulraj, leading to a mass uprising in Multan. This gave Lord Dalhousie the pretext to annex Punjab completely. The Sikh army surrendered and Punjab was annexed. A three-member board to govern Punjab was set up in 1849 but in 1853, the board was nullified and Punjab was placed under a chief commissioner, John Lawrence. After this, the Sikhs were to fight loyally on the British side in the revolt of 1857 and in many other campaigns and wars until the Indian Independence in 1947. Extension of British Paramountcy through Administrative Policy: During their rule of first 100 years, the British employed many tactics to acquire territory and one of which was through administrative policies. ❖ Policy of Ring-Fence: Warren Hastings followed a policy of ring-fence which aimed at creating a buffer zone to defend the company’s frontiers. It was the policy of defence of their neighbours’ frontiers for safeguarding their own territories. The states brought under this system were assured of military assistance against external aggression – but at their own expense. Wellesley’s policy of subsidiary alliance was an extension of this policy. ❖ Subsidiary Alliance: Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) used this policy to consolidate the British Empire in India. Under this system, the allying Indian state’s ruler was compelled to accept the permanent stationing of a British force within his territory and to pay a subsidy for its maintenance. It was all in the pretext that the company would defend the territory of the state from its enemies. The first Indian state to fall into this protection trap was Awadh in 1765. It is believed that it was probably Dupleix who first gave on fire (so to say) European troops to Indian rulers to fight their wars. The protection money was fixed at an exorbitantly high level which the poor rulers could not pay and they had to cede their territory for this. Stages of application of Subsidiary Alliance: There were four stages in the application of this policy. In the first stage, the company offered to help a friendly Indian state with its troops to fight any war the state might be engaged in. The Second stage consisted of making a common cause with the Indian state now made friendly and taking the field with its own soldiers and those of the state. In the Third stage, the Indian ally was not asked for men but for money and the company would protect them from any harm. In the Fourth stage, the money or the protection fee was fixed at a very high level and when the state failed to pay the money in time, it was asked to cede certain parts of its territories to the company in lieu of payment. Now it was just a matter of time as to when the actual annexation might take place. ❖ Doctrine of Lapse: In simple terms, the doctrine stated that the adopted son could be the heir to his foster father’s private property but not the state; it was for the paramount power to decide whether to bestow the state on the adopted son or to annex it. It was a coincidence that during the governor-generalship of Lord Dalhousie several important cases arose in which the ‘Doctrine’ could be applied. He annexed 7 states including Satara, Jhansi & Sambhalpur etc. on the ground of unavailability of a legal heir. Awadh was annexed in 1856 on the ground of misgovernment. Relations of British India with Neighbouring Countries: The desire of British imperialists to consolidate their administrative and political power in the region led them into conflict with countries neighbouring India. Anglo-Bhutanese Relations: The occupation of Assam in 1816 brought the British into close contacts with the mountain state of Bhutan. Frequent raids of Bhutanese into Indian territories and bad treatment meted out to Elgin’s envoy and a treaty by which they had to surrender the passes leading to Assam, led the British to attack Bhutanese and forced them to surrender the passes for an annual subsidy. Anglo-Nepalese Relations: The Gorkhas got the control of Nepal after dethroning the king. They started to expand towards south. In 1801, British annexed Gorakhpur due to which they came close to the Gorkhas boundary. After the Gorkhas captured Butwal and Sheoraj (Nepal), there started a war between them. It ended in the Treaty of Sagauli, 1816. As per the treaty, Nepal withdrew from Sikkim, ceded the districts of Garhwal & Kumaon and Gorkhas were forced to join the British Indian army in large numbers. Anglo-Burmese Relations: The expansionist urges of the British, fuelled by the lure of the forest resources of Burma and the need to check French ambitions in Burma resulted in three Anglo-Burmese Wars, and in the end, the annexation of Burma into British India in 1885. ❖ First Burma War (1824-26): The Burmese expansion towards west troubled the British and in retaliation, they occupied Rangoon in 1824. Burmese had to sign the Treaty of Yandabo, 1826. ❖ Second Burma War (1852): The second war was the result of the British commercial need and the imperialist policy of Lord Dalhousie. The anticipation of better timber resource and a Burmese market brought them in conflict with an intense guerilla resistance which was overcome eventually. ❖ Third Burma War (1885): Thibaw, the king of Burma, was hostile towards the British and was in constant talks with France, Germany & Italy. Finally in 1885, Dufferin ordered the invasion and final annexation of upper Burma. Anglo-Tibetan Relations: Tibet was ruled by a theocracy of Buddhist monks (lamas). There were reports of Russian arms and ammunition coming into Tibet. Curzon felt alarmed and sent a small Gorkha contingent under Colonel Younghusband on a special mission to Tibet. Younghusband pushed his way into Lhasa (August 1904). The Treaty of Lhasa was signed. Anglo-Afghan Relations: The British wanted, in the wake of a probable Russian attack, Afghanistan to be under a friendly treaty or to annex it completely. The Amir of Afghanistan, Dost Mohammad, wanted British friendship but made it conditional on the British helping him recover Peshawar from Ranjit Singh. When denied, he turned to Russia for help. Under The Forward Policy of Auckland, a Tripartite Treaty (1838) was signed between The British, Sikhs & Shah Shuja (A dethroned king of Afghanistan). Under this treaty, Shah Shuja was to be enthroned, conduct his foreign affairs with the help of Sikhs & British & give up his sovereign rights. First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42): After the treaty of 1838, British attacked Afghanistan in 1839. Dost Mohammad surrendered (1840) and Shah Shuja was made the Amir of Afghanistan but he was unacceptable to the Afghani people. As soon as the British withdrew, there rose a rebellion and the British had to sign a treaty (1841) to restore Dost Mohammad. In 1842, the British attacked again but they had to arrive at a settlement with Dost Mohammed by which the British evacuated from Kabul and recognised him as the independent ruler of Afghanistan. Second Anglo-Afghan War (1870-80): Lytton attacked Afghanistan again after being displeased with the Amirs because he discriminated with the British when it came to giving concessions. Sher Ali fled in face of the British invasion, and the Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879) was signed with Yakub Khan, the eldest son of Sher Ali. Sher Ali was made the Amir but soon British had to recapture the Kabul and Kandhar. Later on, it was decided to keep Afghanistan as a buffer state. British India and the North-West Frontier: Many attempts were made to capture this area lying between Indus and Afghanistan. The conquest of Sindh (1843) and annexation of Punjab (1849) carried British boundaries beyond the Indus and close to this area. A boundary line known as Durand Line was drawn between Afghan and British territories in 1893. Soon after, there were tribal uprisings. Curzon, the viceroy between 1899 and 1905, followed a policy of withdrawal and concentration. British troops withdrew from advanced posts which were replaced by tribal levies, trained and commanded by British officers. He created the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) directly under the Government of India. In January 1932, it was announced that the NWFP was to be constituted as a governor’s province. Since 1947, the province belongs to Pakistan.  4 - People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857 Factors for People’s uprisings: The major factors responsible for the people’s resentment and uprisings against the Company rule are as follows. Colonial land revenue system, eviction of people from their land, burden of new taxes & encroachment on tribal lands Exploitation by intermediary revenue collectors, tenets and moneylenders. Heavy export duties on Indian handloom and handicraft products which led to their devastation Destruction of indigenous industries leading to the migration of workers to agriculture, increasing the pressure on land Civil Uprisings (Causes): Changes in land revenue system, economy and administration Zamindars & Poligars that were disposed of their land Ego and pride was also a reason among Zamindars and Poligars Ruin of Indian handicraft industries along with disappearance of their patrons The fall of Zamindars and feudal lords directly affected the priestly class. Foreign character of the British rulers which were alien to Indians Important Civil Uprisings Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800): Famine of 1870 and harsh economic order of the British compelled a group of Sanyasis in Eastern India to revolt. They were joined by Zamindars, disbanded soldiers and rural poor. After a prolonged action, Warren Hastings was able to subdue them. Equal participation of Hindus & Muslims earned it the name ‘Fakir Rebellion’. Anandamath, a novel by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, is based on this revolt. Devi Chaudhurani, also a novel by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, was written on a prominent figure by the same name from the revolt as it was seen as an important step by women to take part in struggle against alien rule. Manjum Shah, Chirag Ali, Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak & Devi Chaudhurani were important leaders of the revolt. Revolt in Midnapore and Dhalbhum (1766-74): Changes in land revenue system (1772) dispossessed many Zamindars which led to a riot in Midnapore, West Bengal. The important leaders of the uprisings were Damodar Singh and Jagnnath Dhal. Revolt of Moamarias (1769-99): Moamarias, low caste peasants, revolted against the Ahom Kingdom in 1769. To crush this revolt, the Ahom ruler turned to the British and was finally won over. The revolt weakened the Ahom Kingdom and it finally came under the British rule. Civil Uprisings in Basti, Gorakhpur & Bahraich (1781): To extract as much money as possible, Warren Hastings employed Major Alexander Hannay in the region to impose izara tax. Fed up with this, the people rebelled and finally the taxation was cancelled and Alexander Hannay removed from his post. Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794): Vizayaramaraju, the raja of Vizianagaram, was angered and attacked the British when they asked for 3 Lakh rupees to be paid to them as there were no dues to be paid. The raja died in a battle at Padmanabham (Andhra Pradesh) in 1794. Vizianagaram came under the Company’s rule. Civil Rebellion in Awadh (1799): Wazir Ali Khan, after being dethroned, was granted a pension and placed in Benares. He killed some Europeans and attacked the Magistrate of Benares. This whole incident was called Massacre of Benares. Later he was defeated and placed in confinement at Fort William, Calcutta. Poligars’ Revolt (1795-1805): When the East India Company got hold of Tinneveli and the Carnatic Provinces, Poligars of that region rose in rebellion. Kattabomman Nayakan (1795-1799), the leader of Poligars, defeated the Company forces. But with reinforcement, the Company was able to defeat Kattabomman. He was hanged along with some other Poligars. In the second phase, imprisoned Poligars broke out of jails and took control of many forts and even captured Tuticorin. The English took control of the forts and razed it to the ground in 1801. But the rebellion continued here and there. By 1805, rebels were suppressed and several chiefs were granted an allowance of 18% upon revenues of their estate. Uprising in Bhiwani (1809) Diwan Velu Thampi’s Revolt (1808-1809): Travancore accepted subsidiary alliance in 1805 under Lord Wellesley. Upon being pressurized to pay the subsidy, the Prime Minister Velu Thampi rebelled and was helped by the Nair troops. A large scale military operation was needed to restore peace. Velu Thampi killed himself to avoid capture. The rebellion petered out. Disturbances in Bundelkhand (1808-12) Parlakimedi Outbreak (1813-34) Kutch or Cutch Rebellion (1816-1832): The British interference in the internal feuds of Kutch in 1819 made King Bharmal II angry and he rose in rebellion along with Arab & African troops. He was defeated and deposed. But the rebellion continued and the British were compelled to follow a conciliatory policy. Rising at Bareilly (1816) Upsurge in Hathras (1817) Paika Rebellion (1817): Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar, a military chief, led an army of Paiks against the Company in 1817. After initial setback, the Britishers were able to win the area back but Jaganbandhu escaped. The rebellion was brutally repressed. Later in 1825, he surrendered. Waghera Rising (1818-1820): Peace treaty was signed. Ahom Revolt (1828): Britishers went back on their promise of leaving Assam after First Burmese War & tried to incorporate some of the Ahom’s territories in the Company’s dominion and this sparked off a revolt in the region under the leadership of Gomdhar Konwar, an Ahom prince. Finally, the Company decided to follow a conciliatory policy. Surat Salt Agitations (1840s): Won by people Kolhapur and Savantvadi Revolts Wahabi Movement: The Wahabi Movement was essentially an Islamic revivalist movement founded by Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly who was inspired by the teachings of Abdul Wahab (1703-87) of Saudi Arabia and Shah Waliullah of Delhi. Since Dar-ul-Harb (the land of kafirs) was to be converted into Dar-ul-Islam (the land of Islam), a jihad was declared against the Sikh kingdom of Punjab. After the defeat of the Sikh ruler and incorporation of Punjab into the East India Company’s dominion in 1849, the English dominion in India became the sole target of the Wahabis’ attacks. Although weakened by several military operations by the Company, the movement was kept alive with some sporadic events. Kuka Movement: The concept of Swadeshi & non-cooperation was introduced by Kukas. Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones: Peasants uprisings were against eviction from land, increase in rent of land & moneylenders’ greedy ways to grab their land. Narkelberia Uprising: Mir Nithar Ali launched this against landlords in WB. Was later merged into Wahabi Movement The Pagal Panthis: A semi-religious group mainly constituting the Hajong and Garo tribes (Earlier in Bengal) was founded by Karam Shah. It was a revolt against high pay rent. Faraizi Revolt: The Faraizis were the followers of a Muslim sect founded by Haji Shariat-Allah of Faridpur in Eastern Bengal. The Faraizi disturbances continued from 1838 to 1857. Most of the Faraizis joined the Wahabi ranks. Moplah Uprisings: Hike in revenue demand, reduction of field sizes & oppression by officials resulted in revolt of Moplah peasants in Malabar. Tribal Revolts: Tribal movements under British rule were the most frequent, militant and violent of all movements. Different Causes for Mainland and North-Eastern Tribal Revolts: New land settlement rule introduced by the British, extension of agricultural land into the forest areas of tribals, curbing of shifting cultivation, restricting of timber use and grazing by tribals in the forest areas, exploitation by the police & traders and interference by Christian Missionaries in the customs of tribal people were some of the reasons for these tribal movements. The movements of the tribes of the north-eastern frontier were different from the non-frontier tribal (inland tribes) revolts in some aspects. Important Tribal Movements of Mainland- Pahariyas’ Rebellion: Expansion by the British in 1778 led to an uprising in Raj Mahal Hills. The British were forced to usher in peace by declaring their territory as damni-kol area. Chuar Uprising: The Chuar Rebellion was a series of uprisings by tribal farmers in Bengal against British rule in the late 18 th (From 1766 to 1772) and early 19th (1795-1816) centuries. Triggered by heavy taxes, famine, and economic hardship, the Chuars fought multiple rebellions led by different chiefs. Though initially successful, the British eventually crushed these revolts. Kol Mutiny (1831): The Kols, inhabitants of Chhotanagpur, were troubled by a large scale transfer of land to outsiders who were oppressive and demanded heavy taxes. In 1831, they rebelled under the leadership of Buddho Bhagat but were later suppressed. Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820-37): The first Ho revolt was suppressed in 1827. Later in 1831, against the newly introduced farming policy & entry of Bengalis into the region made them rebel again. It was extinguished soon. [In 1899-1900, Birsa Munda organized a rebellion of Mundas. Soon, a religious movement gathered political force to fight against introduction of feudal, zamindari tenures, and exploitation by money-lenders and forest contractors. Birsa was captured and imprisoned.] The Santhal Rebellion (1855-56): Continued oppression of Santhals (Bihar) forced them to rebel against Zamindars and Money lenders under Sidhu and Kanhu. Soon it turned into an anti-British movement. The rebellion was suppressed by 1856. Khond Uprisings (1837-1856): Kondh uprisings led by Chakra Bisnoi (1837-56 and later in 1914; hilly region extending from Tamil Nadu to Bengal; in Orissa in 1914); against interference in tribal customs and imposition of new taxes. Koya Revolts Bhil Revolts: The Bhils lived in the Western Ghats. They revolted against Company rule in 1817-19, as they had to face famine, economic distress and misgovernment. The British used both force and conciliatory efforts to control the uprising. Koli Risings Ramosi Risings Tribal Movements of the North-East: Some famous tribal movements of the north-east frontier region have been given below. Khasi Uprising: Khasis’ Revolt (1830s; hilly region between Jaintia and Garo Hills); led by the Nunklow ruler, Tirath Singh; against the occupation of the hilly region for road building. Singphos Rebellion: Singphos’ Rebellion (1830s; Assam); led to murder of British political agent of Assam by Singphos in 1839; was ultimately suppressed. Sepoy Mutinies: A number of sporadic military uprisings took place before the Great Revolt of 1857 in different parts of the country. Causes: There was rising discontent among sepoys of the company due to following reasons. i. Discrimination in payment and promotion ii. Mistreatment by officials iii. Refusal to pay foreign service allowance while fighting on foreign soil iv. Some Hindus believed that crossing the sea will cause them to lose their caste. Lord Canning’s General Service Enlistment Act (1856) ordering all recruits to be ready for service both within and outside India. v. Sepoys were peasants too. So they shared all the discontent of civil population as well. Important Mutinies: Some pre-1857 revolts that broke out are as follows: a) The mutiny of the sepoys in Bengal in 1764. b) The Vellore mutiny of 1806 when the sepoys protested against interference in their social and religious practices and raised a banner of revolt unfurling the flag of the ruler of Mysore. c) The mutiny of the sepoys of the 47th Native Infantry Unit in 1824. d) The revolt of the Grenadier Company in Assam in 1825. e) The mutiny of an Indian regiment at Sholapur in 1838. f) The mutinies of the 34th Native Infantry (N.I.), the 22nd N.I., the 66th N.I. and the 37th N.I. in 1844, 1849, 1850 and 1852 respectively. Weakness of People’s uprisings: Although, it attracted a great number of people but they all took place in different places in different time. It was mostly local and not national. These uprisings didn’t offer alternatives to the existing social set-up and was backward looking. People’s enemy was common but their agenda was not. Every group was fighting for their own cause and not because of some ‘national’ interest. These rebellions were centuries-old in form and ideological / cultural content. The methods and arms used by the fighters in these uprisings were practically obsolete compared to that of the weapons and strategy.  5 – The Revolt of 1857 Major Causes: The causes of the revolt of 1857 are discussed below: a. Economic Causes: Imposition of high taxes by the Company resulted in the peasants borrowing money from money-lenders and upon nonpayment of dues, they were evicted from their own land. These money lenders became new Zamindars and old Zamindari system was forced to disintegrate. Artisans & Handicraft people lost their patronage after the annexation of Indian states & due to some policies of the British. High tariff on Indian export along with low tariff on import of the British products threw Indian trade out of the market. New Zamindari system made a lot of Zamindars lose their lands for which they were very unpleasant. The ruin of Indian industry increased the pressure on agriculture and land, which could not support all the people. b. Political Causes: Doctrine of Lapse, subsidiary alliance and direct annexation caused resentment among rulers of India. A large number of them were dislodged which caused fear in their minds. Also, Lord Canning announced that the next prince on succession would have to renounce the regal title and the ancestral Mughal palaces. c. Administrative Causes: Corruption in the administration of the Company caused discontent among people. d. Socio-Religious Causes: Racial overtones & superiority complex shown by the British, activities of Christian Missionaries, reforms such as abolition of Sati, widow re-marriage & women’s education was seen by people as an attack on their customs and traditions. As per the Religious Disabilities act, 1856, a change of religion did not debar a son from inheriting his father’s property. This was also one of the causes. e. Influence from outside events: The First Afghan War (1838-42), the Punjab War (1845-49) & the Crimean Wars (1854-56) in which Britishers faced serious loses, had psychological repercussions. The British were seen as not so strong and superior races and it was felt that they could also be defeated. f. Discontent among Sepoys: Restrictions on wearing caste and sectarian marks & secret rumors of proselytizing activities were seen as interference in the religious matters of sepoys. To Hindus, crossing the sea meant loss of caste and the General Service Enlistment Act, 1856 made it mandatory for Bengal recruits to serve anywhere in the world. Denying of Foreign Service allowance (Bhatta), less emolument than their British counterparts & racial discrimination by the British also enflamed their discontent. Beginning and spread of the revolt: The reports about the mixing of bone dust in atta (flour) and the introduction of the Enfield rifle in which the greased cartridge was reportedly made up of cow and pig fat. This caused serious discontent in the army. The greased cartridges did not create a new cause of discontent in the Army, but supplied the occasion for the simmering discontent to come out in the open. Starts at Meerut: Upon seeing their religion in danger, infantry at Behrampur in February, 1857 broke in mutiny but was later disbanded. A sepoy from Barrackpore infantry, Mangal Pandey, fired at his major and was executed with his regiment also disbanded. Later Awadh regiment met the similar fate. In Meerut, the same incident took place on May 9 but on May 10, 1857, they were released by their counterparts, killed their officers and revolted. And thus began the Revolt of 1857. They marched towards Delhi. Choice of Bahadur Shah as Symbolic Head: Delhi infantry also revolted and along with others, Bahadur Shah was proclaimed the emperor of India. With this act, the sepoys had transformed a mutiny of soldiers into a revolutionary war, while all Indian chiefs who took part in the revolt hastened to proclaim their loyalty to the Mughal emperor. Bahadur Shah wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of India urging them to organize a confederacy of Indian states to fight and replace the British regime. It is the widespread participation in the revolt by the peasantry, the artisans, shopkeepers, day labourers, zamindars, religious mendicants, priests and civil servants which gave it real strength as well as the character of a popular revolt. Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt: In Delhi, the troops from Delhi & Bareilly were really led by General Bakht Khan even though the nominal command lay with Bahadur Shah. At Kanpur, Nana Saheb who was banished from Poona and was living at Kanpur, led the revolt. Begum Hazrat Mahal took over the reigns at Lucknow where the rebellion broke out on June 4, 1857. A British resident was killed and finally in March, 1958, the city was recovered. Khan Bahadur Shah at Bareilly revolted. In Bihar, the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh, the zamindar of Jagdishpur. Maulvi Ahmadullah, originally from Madras, led the revolt at Faizabad. The revolt at Jhansi organized by Rani Laxmibai after her adopted son was refused the throne under ‘Doctrine of Lapse’, was the most outstanding. She was joined by Tantia Tope. She was finally overcome in June 1858 by Sir Hugh Rose. The sacrifices made by the common masses were immense and innumerable. The name of Shah Mal, a local villager in Pargana Baraut (Baghpat, Uttar Pradesh), is most notable. He urged people to fight against the British. He himself was indulged in many activities which were against the Company. Unfortunately, in July 1857, Shah Mal was killed by an English officer, Dunlap. Suppression of the Revolt: The revolt was finally suppressed. The British captured Delhi in September, 1857. Bahadur Shah was exiled to Rangoon and princes were shot at point blank range on the spot. Kanpur was occupied in December, 1857 and Nana Sahab fled to Nepal. Tantia Tope was captured while asleep in 1859 and later put to death. By 1859, Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan Bahadur Khan of Bareilly, Rao Sahib (brother of Nana Saheb) and Maulvi Ahmadullah were all dead, while the Begum of Awadh was compelled to hide in Nepal.  By the end of 1859, British authority over India was fully re-established. Why the revolt failed: All-India Participation was absent which was seen by the fact that the eastern, southern and western parts of India remained more or less unaffected. All Classes did not join: Big Zamindars, Money lenders and merchants did not join the revolt since they saw that their interests were safer under the British. Since educated Indians had high hopes of modernization from the British and saw this revolt as backward looking, also opposed it. Most Indian rulers such as the Sindhia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the rulers of Patiala, Sindh and other Sikh chieftains and the Maharaja of Kashmir actively supported the British in suppression. Poor arms and equipment: Poor arms of Indians were no match for the superior rifles to the British. Britishers also used telegraph to keep an eye on the activities of rebels. The revolt was uncoordinated and poorly organized. No unified Ideology: These uprisings didn’t offer alternatives to the existing social set-up and was backward looking. Nature of the revolt: Some British historians such as Sir John Seeley called the uprising a ‘sepoy mutiny’. However, that is not true as there were other sections of the people also involved in it. Dr K. Datta considers the revolt of 1857 to have been “in the main a military outbreak, which was taken advantage of by certain discontented princes and landlords, whose interests had been affected by the new political order”. In twentieth century, VD Savarkar interpreted as a ‘planned war of national independence’. Dr S.N. Sen in his Eighteen Fifty-Seven considers the revolt as having begun as a fight for religion but ending as a war of independence. A lot of other historians gave it different names and characters. Not quite the first war of independence but sowed the seeds of nationalism and quest for freedom from alien rule. Consequences: The British Parliament passed The Government of India Act, 1858 which transferred all the powers to the British government from the East India Company. The Act declared Queen Victoria as the sovereign of British India and provided for the appointment of a Secretary of State for India (a member of the British cabinet). The Indian states and people were promised responsible government and equality. The Army was thoroughly reorganized and the number of Indian soldiers was reduced and the number of British soldiers was increased. Recruits were to be drawn from the ‘martial’ races of Punjab, Nepal, and north-western frontier who had proved loyal to the British during the Revolt and their separate units were created. All higher posts in the army and the artillery departments were reserved for the Europeans. The policy of divide and rule started in earnest after the Revolt of 1857. The British used one class/community against another unscrupulously. There was white mutiny due to the fact that the company’s troops were denied extra allowances after the sovereignty was transferred from the East India Company to the Crown. Hence, they were sent back home. Significance of the Revolt: For British, the revolt brought out in open all the defects in their administrative and military which were rectified. The atrocities done by both the sides during the revolt, made Indian intellectuals realize that violence was not to be the answer to this.  6 – Socio-Religious Reform Movements: General Features Factors giving rise to desire for reforms- ❖ Impact of British Rule: The presence of the British on Indian soil gave impetus to the reforms that were required in the field of science and technology whereas Indian society presented the picture of a stagnant civilization and a static & decadent culture. ❖ Social Condition Ripe for reforms: In 19th century, Hinduism was mired in (stuck in) superstitions and magic which had great influence on the minds of people and under its influence, people were ready to do inhuman things. Killing of female infants, child marriage, sati, polygamy, ban on widow-remarriage & purdah were some of the atrocities against women that were prevalent in that era. Lower caste people were called untouchables or scheduled caste which hindered the growth of national feeling among people. Not only Hindus but Muslims, Sikhs and Christians practiced untouchability. The dress, food, place of residence, sources of water for drinking and irrigation, entry into temples—all these were regulated by the caste factor. ❖ Opposition to Western Culture: The foreign culture in India was advertised as the superior culture and Indian culture was demeaned which fuelled hatred among Indians. ❖ New Awareness among enlightened Indians: Factors such as growth of nationalist sentiments, emergence of new economic forces, spread of education, impact of modern Western ideas and culture and increased awareness of the world strengthened the resolve to reform among newly educated Indians. Many of the intellectuals set aside the authority of religion and evaluated truth in any religion by the criteria of logic, reason or science. Direction of Social Reforms: Broadly, the social reform movements had a two-point agenda—fight for the betterment of status of women in society and fight to remove disabilities arising out of untouchability. ❖ Fighting for betterment of women: Because of the indefatigable efforts of the reformers, a number of administrative measures were adopted by the government to improve the condition of women. Sati was abolished by the government after the rigorous efforts of Raja Rammohan Roy in 1829. Preventing female infanticide The Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder. As the female child was considered financial burden, an Act passed in 1870 made it compulsory for parents to register the birth of all babies and provided for verification of female children for some years after birth. Widow remarriage The efforts of Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-91), the principal of Sanskrit College, Calcutta, resulted into the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856, being passed. Controlling child marriage The Native Marriage Act (or Civil Marriage Act), 1872 signified legislative action in prohibiting child marriage although it was not applicable to Hindus, Muslims & Sikhs. The Age of Consent Act, 1891 prohibited the marriage of girls below 12. Later, The Sarda Act, 1930 pushed up the marriage age to 18 and 14 for boys and girls, respectively. Education of Women The Bethune School (1849), founded by J.E.D. Bethune, was the first school for women’s education. Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was associated with no less than 35 girls’ schools in Bengal. Wood’s Despatch in 1854, the Women’s Medical Services in  1914, Indian Women’s University set up by D. K. Karve in 1916 were some of the examples. Later, self aware women themselves set up many organizations and institutions such as All India Women’s Conference (1927). Women’s Organizations Bharat Stree Mahamandal by Sarla Devi Chaudhurani in 1910 Ladies Social Conference (Bharat Mahila Parishad) by Ramabai Ranade in 1904 Arya Mahila Samaj by Pandita Ramabai Saraswati in 1882 National Council for Women by Mehribai Tata in 1925 The All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) by Margaret Cousins along with Sarojini Naidu in 1927 at Pune ❖ Struggles against Caste Based Exploitation: There were multiple factors which helped mitigate caste-based discrimination. Through British Rule: Free sale of land, modern transport such as train in which all caste travelled together, concept of equality before law through administration and new education system brought by the British were some of the factors which intentionally or unintentionally affected caste-based discrimination. The Social reform movements: Organizations and groups such as the Brahmo Samaj, Prarthna Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramkrishna Mission, the Theosophists, the Social Conference and individuals worked to spread education among untouchables. Although, many of them defended Chaturvarna system, they criticized untouchability. The National Movement: Mass participation in movements, demonstrations, meetings & Satyagraha struggles diluted the caste based discriminations. Opening up of schools for untouchables, opening up of temples for untouchables and establishments of some organizations such as All India Harijan Sangh by Gandhi Ji also helped. Awakening of lower caste: Jyotiba Phule, a mali, opened several schools for untouchables along with this wife. Babasaheb Ambedkar established All India Scheduled Caste Federation, led Mahad Satyagraha in 1927 and advocated for annihilation of caste altogether. The Self-Respect Movement was led by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker.  7 – A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders- Raja Rammohan Roy & Brahmo Samaj: Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) is often called the father of Indian Renaissance and the maker of Modern India. He believed in social equality, principles of human dignity and modern scientific approach. He believed in monotheism & opposed idolatry and to support his belief translated Vedas & some Upnishads in Bengali. He founded Brahmo Sabha (Later renamed to Brahmo Samaj) in 1828 with an agenda to purify Hinduism. Roy’s progressive ideas were opposed by orthodox elements like Raja Radhakant Deb who organised the Dharma Sabha to counter Brahmo Samaj propaganda. Some of the features of Brahmo Samaj were to denounce polytheism & idolatry, no faith in incarnations, no scripture to be above human reason & conscience and criticize caste system. He started his anti-sati struggle in 1818 and after many years of fight, the government brought a regulation in 1829 to abolish sati. In 1825, he established a Vedanta College offering courses in both Indian and western subjects. He is also known for his broad based knowledge, being a supporter of freedom of press and a political activist. Maharishi Debendranath Tagore, father of Rabindranath Tagore, amalgamated his organization Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839) with Brahmo Samaj. The revitalised Samaj supported widow remarriage, women’s education, abolition of polygamy, improvement in ryots’ conditions and temperance. Keshab Chandra Sen founded Brahmo Samaj of India (1866) after being expelled from Brahmo Samaj for having some ideas that were not liked by Debendranath Tagore while Debendranath Tagore’s Samaj came to be known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj. After a split in Brahmo Samaj of India, the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj was set up. Prarthana Samaj: In 1867, Atmaram Pandurang founded Prarthana Samaj with the help of Keshab Chandra Sen. Later in 1870, Mahadev Govind Ranade joined and worked on social reform through education & persuasion rather than religion & confrontation along with R.G. Bhandarkar, N.G. Chandavarkar, Dhondo Keshav Karve and Vishnu Shastri for caste, women & widows. Ranade also founded the Widow Remarriage Movement as well as Widows’ Home Association. Young Bengal Movement: Henry Vivian Derozio, influenced by the French Revolution, founded Young Bengal Movement. He inspired the youth to think freely, question authorities & customs, love liberty & freedom and oppose decadent traditions. Such radical & bookish ideas were not welcomed by the society and the impact of the movement was very short-term. They demanded induction of Indians in higher grades of services, protection of ryots from oppressive zamindars, better treatment to Indian labour abroad in British colonies, revision of the Company’s charter, freedom of press and trial by jury. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: Vidyasagar started a movement in support of widow remarriage which resulted in legalization of widow remarriage. He worked against child marriage and polygamy. He did much for the cause of women’s education. He helped organize 35 schools for girls and later for their higher education as well. Balshashtri Jambhekar: He attacked brahminical orthodoxy and tried to reform popular Hinduism. He started a newspaper Darpan in 1832 to awaken people for social reforms such as widow remarriage and encourage the masses to apply a scientific approach to life. In 1840, he started Digdarshan to publish articles on history and scientific subjects. Paramahansa Mandali: It was founded in 1849 by Dadoba Pandurang, Mehtaji Durgaram and others. It preached for freedom of thought, rationality, love, moral conduct and against caste rules. Satyashodhak Samaj: Jyotiba Phule, a mali, founded the Satyashodhak Samaj with the aim to do social service, spread of education among women and lower caste, counter upper class domination, brahminical supremacy & complete abolition of caste. Phule’s works were Sarvajanik Satyadharma and Gulamgiri. With the help of his wife, Savitribai, he opened a girl’s school at Poona. Phule was awarded the title ‘Mahatma’ for his social reform work. Gopalhari Deshmukh ‘Lokhitawadi’: Gopalhari Deshmukh (Maharashtra), a judge, wrote for a weekly Prabhakar under the pen name Lokhhitawadi. He worked for social and religious equality and against the caste system. He started a weekly, Hitechhu, and also played a leading role in founding the periodicals, Gyan Prakash, Indu Prakash and Lokahitawadi. Gopal Ganesh Agarkar The Servants of Indian society: Gopal Krishna Gokhale founded the Servants of the Indian Society in 1905 with the help of M G Ranade. The aim of the society was to train Indians for service of India, to promote the true interest of Indians & to prepare people to devout their lives to the cause of country. An English newspaper Hitavada was started in 1911. The Society still functions in India to this date. Social Service League: It was founded by Narayan Malhar Joshi in Bombay. Joshi also founded the All India Trade Union Congress (1920). The Ramakrishna movement & Swami Vivekananda: Ramakrishan Paramahamsa, teachings based on secular lines, laid the foundation of Ramakrishan Math to take up the first objective out of the two objectives of the Ramakrishna movement which were—(i) Establishment of a monastic order dedicated to spiritual practice and dissemination of Vedantic principles, and (ii) Undertaking philanthropic and charitable activities for all irrespective of caste, creed, or gender. To fulfill the second objective, Swami Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna Movement in 1897. The headquarters of Ramakrishna Math and Movement are at Belur near Calcutta. Swami Vivekananda was a disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. He tried to spread his Guru’s teachings which were based on the Upanishad & the Gita. He believed in Vedas. He called upon his countrymen to imbibe a spirit of liberty, equality and free thinking. At the Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893, Swami Vivekananda made a great impression on people by his learned interpretations. The Mission stands for religious and social reform. The service of jiva (living objects) is the worship of Siva. Dayananda Saraswati & Arya Samaj: Dayananda Saraswati founded Arya Samaj in 1875 at Bombay. He published his views in Satyartha Prakash. He envisioned for a classless & casteless society, a united India, an India free from foreign rule and considered the Vedas to be infallible. He gave the slogan ‘Back to the Vedas’. Dayananda launched a frontal attack on Hindu orthodoxy, caste rigidities, untouchability, idolatry, polytheism, belief in magic, charms and animal sacrifices, taboo on sea voyages, feeding the dead through shraddhas, etc and encouraged intercaste marriage & widow remarriage. The Samaj started the shuddhi (purification) movement to reconvert to the Hindu fold the converts to Christianity and Islam. Seva Sadan: Behramji M. Malabari founded the Seva Sadan in 1908 along with a friend, Diwan Dayaram Gidumal. Due to his efforts, the Age of Consent Act regulating the age of consent for females was passed. Dev Samaj: Founded in 1887 at Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri Dharma Sabha: Radhakant Deb founded this sabha in 1830 as an orthodox society. Bharat Dharma Mahamandal: It was an all-India organisation of the orthodox educated Hindus opposing Arya Samajists, the Theosophists, and the Ramakrishna Mission. Other organisations created to defend orthodox Hinduism were the Sanatana Dharma Sabha (1895), the Dharma Maha Parishad in South India, and Dharma Mahamandali in Bengal. These organisations combined in 1902 to form the single organisation of Bharat Dharma Mahamandala, with headquarters at Varanasi. Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya was a prominent figure in this movement. Radhaswami Movement: Founded by Tulsi Ram (Shiv Dayal Saheb) in Agra in 1861 Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Movement: This was a regional movement born out of the conflict between upper class and so called lower classes. It was started by Sree Narayana Guru Swamy, among Ezhavas of Kerala who were considered untouchables, for the admission to school, recruitment to government jobs, access to roads and temples and political representation. Originally known as Aruvippuram Movement, it was registered with the name SNDP in 1903 under the Indian Companies Act. He installed a Shivlingam himself and made a temple for the depressed classes. Vokkaliga Sangha: The Vokkaliga Sangha in Mysore launched an anti-brahmin movement in 1905. Justice Movement: Started by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair and P. Tyagaraja, this movement was to secure jobs and representation for non-brahmins in legislature. Self Respect Movement: This movement was started in mid 1920s by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker to reject brahminical religion and culture and even formalize weddings without a Brahmin priest. Temple Entry Movement: In 1924, the Vaikom Satyagraha led by K.P. Kesava, was launched in Kerala to open the Hindu temples and roads to the untouchables. Mahatma Gandhi took a tour to Kerala in support of this movement. After the suspension of Civil Disobedience Movement in 1931, the movement was launched again. Finally, in 1936, the Maharaja of Travancore issued a proclamation to open all government-controlled temples to all Hindus. This movement was led by P. Krishna Pillai, A.K. Gopalan and K. Kelappan, poet Subramaniyam Tirumambu (the ‘singing sword of Kerala’). Indian Social Conference: Founded by M.G. Ranade & Raghunath Rao in 1887, this was a social reform cell of INC (1885). The conference advocated inter-caste marriages, opposed polygamy, Kulinism and organized pledge ceremonies to inspire people to take pledge against child marriage. Wahabi/Walliullah Movement: This movement was started in 1820 by Syed Ahmed Barelvi & Shah Abdul Aziz. This was a movement to reform Islam and restore it to its pristine form. India was considered to be dar-ul-Harb (land of the kafirs) and it needed to be converted to dar-ul-Islam (land of Islam). During the 1857 Revolt, the Wahabi’s played an important role in spreading anti-British feelings. The Wahabi Movement fizzled out in the face of British military might in the 1870s. Titu Mir’s Movement: Mir Nithar/Nisar Ali, aka Titu Mir, founded the movement and it was a form of Wahabi movement which was launched against the Hindu landlords of Bengal. He was killed in 1831. Faraizi Movement: Founded by Haji Shariatuallah in 1818, this movement aimed to eradicate un-islamic practices prevalent among Muslims. Dudu Mian, Haji’s son, gave the movement a revolutionary angle from 1840s. Ahmadiyyan Movement: The Ahmadiyyan was a sect of Islam which originated in India. This movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1889. It based its teachings on the line of Brahmo Samaj of universal religion, western liberal education and opposed Jihad against non-Muslims. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan & Aligarh Movement: The movement was started in 1875 to help educate Muslims in modern western education. He advocated critical approach and freedom of thought & not a complete dependence on customs and traditions. He started Mohammedan Anglo- Oriental College (Later AMU) at Aligarh. He worked for educating women & opposed Purdah and Polygamy. Initially concerned with Muslim’s education and upliftment, he started to talk about the different interest of Hindus and Muslims in his later years. He asked Muslims to stay away from political agitation since he believed that the British were in their favour and participation of Muslims in politics might anger them. The Aligarh Movement emerged as a liberal, modern trend among the Muslim intelligentsia. Deoband School (Darul Uloom): The Deoband Movement was begun at the Darul Uloom (or Islamic academic centre), Deoband, in Saharanpur district (United Provinces) in 1866 by Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi to propagate the true teachings of Quran and Hadis and Jihad. It supported INC formation and opposed Syed Ahmed Khan’s movements. Mahmud-ul-Hasan & Shibli Numani were prominent leaders of this school who favoured European sciences in education for Muslims. Parsi Reform Movement: The Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious Reform Association) was founded in 1851 to reform Parsis and restoration of Zoroastrian religion. The movement had Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, K.R. Cama and S.S. Bengalee as its leaders. The message of reform was spread by the newspaper Rast Goftar (Truth-Teller). Several attempts were made to uplift the status of Parsi women through removal of the purdah system, raising the age of marriage and education. Sikh Reform Movements: The Singh Sabha Movement was founded at Amritsar in 1873 to impart modern education among Sikhs and counter proselytizing activities of Sikhs by Christians, Hindus & Muslims. Network of Khalsa Schools were established for this. The Akali Movement (also known as Gurudwara Reform Movement) was an offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement. Its aim was to liberate Gurudwaras from the control of corrupt Udasi Mahants who enjoyed government patronage. After a popular agitation, the government passed the Sikh Gurudwaras Act in 1922 (amended in 1925) which gave the control of gurudwaras to the Sikh masses. The Theosophical Movement: A group of westerners led by Madame H.P. Blavatsky (1831- 1891) and Colonel M.S. Olcott, who were inspired by Indian thought and culture, founded the Theosophical Society in New York City, United States in 1875. In 1882, they shifted their headquarters to Adyar, on the outskirts of Madras (at that time) in India. It opposed child marriage, caste discrimination & worked for widows. It believed in Hindus philosophies such as reincarnation and Karma. Annie Besant became its president in 1907. She laid the foundation of Central Hindu College in Benaras (Later BHU) where Hindu religion and western scientific subjects were taught. The society was somewhat for westernized people mostly and it did not have much influence among Indians. Significance of Reform Movements- Positive Aspects: Faced opposition from orthodoxy, but liberated individuals from conformity and exploitation Promoted personal worship, human intellect, and reason Modernized and simplified rituals, reducing corruption Empowered middle class and reduced post-conquest humiliation (by the British) Fostered modern, secular, and rational outlook Revived native cultural personality, resisting colonial hegemony Negative Aspects: The reform movements had narrow social base which mostly neglected the poor and masses.  Overemphasis on scriptures undermined modern outlook. Over glorification of ancient India and looking at the medieval India as an era of decadence made lower class feel excluded since they had suffered during that time period. Also, it created a communal tension among Hindus and Muslims as the medieval India was the era of Muslims. Evolution of composite culture showed signs of decadence and communal consciousness started rising among the middle class. The emergence of communal consciousness was mostly due to the fact of reforms on the religious lines.  8 – Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India Factors in the growth of Modern Nationalism- ❖ Understanding of contradictions in Indian and Colonial Interests ❖ Political, Administrative and Economic Unification of the Country: The British rule over almost whole of India created a sense of political unity through civil services, unified judiciary & a codified civil and criminal laws. The modern means of transportation and communication such as railways, post-offices, roads, electricity & telegraphs showed Indians that they were all under the same economic suppression as this unified their economic interests. Famine in one region affected the other region too. The modern means of communication and transportation brought the leaders from all over the India together. ❖ Western Thought and Education: Spread of education in English language provided Indians with the opportunity to familiarize themselves with modern thoughts of the west of modern rational, secular, democratic and nationalist ideas. The common English language helped in the communication among leaders from different regions. People going abroad for study saw the difference in Indian and foreign political setup. ❖ Role of press and literature: With the growth of Indian-owned English and vernacular newspapers, there spread modern ideas of self- government, democracy, civil rights and industrialization, sharing of ideas among leaders from different regions & people looking at foreign rule as their common enemy. ❖ Rediscovery of India’s Past: The new picture of India brought forward by various historians was characterized by well-developed political, social and economic institutions, a flourishing trade with world & a rich heritage in art and culture. This boosted the self respect and confidence of Indians. ❖ Progressive Character of Socio-Religious Reform Movements ❖ Rise of Middle Class Intelligentsia through administrative and economic innovations ❖ Impact of contemporary movements in the world: Ruin of Spanish and Portuguese empire, national liberation movement of Italy, Greece & Ireland ❖ Reactionary policies and racial arrogance of Rulers: Racial myths of white supremacy, reduction of age for ICS examination from 21 to 19, hosting of grand Delhi Durbar in 1877 during famine, the vernacular press act (1878) and the arms act (1878) provoked an opposition in the country. Lord Ripon brought Ilbert Bill in 1883 in which the provisions were to give Indian members of ICS the same power as the Europeans and Indian judges could try European citizens. Ripon had to modify the bill due to the opposition from the European community. This showed the Indians that no justice and fair play could be expected from the Europeans. This also taught them how to agitate against for their rights. Political Associations before INC: ❖ Political Associations in Bengal- The Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha was formed in 1836 by associates of Raja Rammohan Roy. The Zamindari Association aka the Landholders’ society The Bengal British Indian Society was founded in 1843  Through the merger of the Landholders’ society & the Bengal British Indian Society, the British Indian Association was formed in 1851. A petition was sent by this association to the British government for reforms. These were partially accepted when the Charter Act of 1853 provided for the addition of six members to the governor-general’s council for legislative purposes. The East India Association was organised by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1866 in London. The Indian League was started in 1875 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh. The Indian Association of Calcutta (also known as the Indian National Association) superseded the Indian League and was founded in 1876 by Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan Bose. ❖ Political Associations in Bombay The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded in 1867 by Mahadeo Govind Ranade. The Bombay Presidency Association was started by Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta and K.T. Telang in 1885. ❖ Political Associations in Madras The Madras Mahajan Sabha was founded in 1884 by M. Viraraghavachari, B. Subramaniya Aiyer and P. Anandacharlu. Pre-Congress Campaigns: Imposition of import duty on cotton (1875) Indianisation of government service (1878-79) Opposition to Lytton's Afghan adventure Opposition to Arms Act (1878) Opposition to Vernacular Press Act (1878) Right to join volunteer corps Opposition to plantation labour and Inland Emigration Act Support for Ilbert Bill Establishment of an All India Fund for Political Agitation Campaign in Britain to vote for pro-India party Opposition to reduction in maximum age for Indian Civil Service exams  9 – Indian National Congress: Foundation and the Moderate Phase Foundation of INC: A retired civil servant, A.O. Hume, founded INC in 1885 and held its session in Bombay which was attended by 72 delegates and presided over by Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee. Some of the great presidents of the Congress during the early phase were Dadabhai Naoroji (thrice president), Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta, P. Anandacharlu, Surendranath Banerjea, Romesh Chandra Dutt, Ananda Mohan Bose and Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Other prominent leaders included Mahadeo Govind Ranade, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Sisir Kumar Ghosh, Motilal Ghosh, Madan Mohan Malaviya, G. Subramaniya Aiyar, C. Vijayaraghavachariar, Dinshaw E. Wacha. Was it a safety valve?: The extremist leader Lala Lajpat Rai proposed a theory that said that INC was a safety valve which was to be used for releasing the growing discontent of Indians. Modern historians believed that even though it was a safety valve but AO Hume worked as a ‘Lightning Conductor’ for Indian leaders to bring them together. Being a British citizen, AO Hume did not face much opposition from the government because if such an attempt had been made by an Indian, it would have not been allowed by the officials. Aims and Objectives of the Congress: The main aims of the Indian National Congress in the initial stage were to— found a democratic, nationalist movement politicize and politically educate people promote friendly relations among nationalist political workers from different parts of the country develop and propagate an anti-colonial nationalist ideology formulate and present popular demands before the government develop and consolidate a feeling of national unity among people Era of Moderates & their approach (1885-1905): Moderates believed that the British rule was in favour of Indians and the British would comply to their demands if they followed the 3P strategy – Prayer, Petition & Protest (Constitutional agitation). To achieve this, they worked on two pronged strategy – One, create a strong public opinion & two, persuade the British government to introduce reforms. A British committee of INC was established in London in 1899. Some of the prominent leaders of this era were - Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjea & S.N. Banerjea. Contributions of Moderate Nationalists: ❖ Economic Critique of British Imperialism: Dadabhai Naoroji along with other prominent leaders put forward the ‘Drain Theory’ to explain the economic exploitation of India by the British. India was an exporter of raw materials and importer of finished goods which drained its wealth. They demanded severance of Indian economy to the British economy and development of an independent economy. They also demanded reduction in land revenue, abolition of salt tax, improvement in working condition of plantation labour and reduction in military expenditure. ❖ Constitutional reforms and propaganda in legislature: Indian Councils Act, 1861 gave no real power to Indians in legislature. Till 1892 Act, out of 45 members only a handful of independent Indians such as Syed Ahmed Khan, Kristodas Pal, V.N. Mandlik, K.L. Nulkar and Rashbehari Ghosh were nominated as un-official members. They demanded for more representation to Indians in legislature and more power to councils. Dadabhai Naoroji (1904), Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1905) and Lokmanya Tilak (1906) demanded self-government on the lines of the self-  governing colonies of Canada and Australia. Through this, moderates were able to enhance their political stature, build a national movement among the public but failed to include the masses and women. ❖ Campaign for General Administrative Reforms: The Moderates campaigned on the following grounds: a. Indianisation of government services on economical, political and moral grounds b. Separation of judiciary from executive c. Criticism of bureaucracy & Judiciary d. Criticism of aggressive foreign policies resulting in heavy expenditure e. More expenditure on welfare, technical and education f. Better treatment of Indians working abroad ❖ Protection of Civil Rights: Civil rights included the right to speech, thought, association and a free press. Arrest of Tilak and other leaders in 1897 & deportation of Natu brothers without a trial created a great public outrage. An evaluation of Early Nationalists: They represented the most progressive forces of that time. They were able to create a national awakening and belonging to one nation among public. They popularized modern ideas, exposed the exploitative character of colonial rule & created a solid base for movements in upcoming years. But they failed to include the masses and widen their base. They lacked faith in masses.  10 – Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909) Why Militant Nationalism Grew: Many factors contributed to the rise of militant nationalism. ❖ Recognition of true nature of British rule: Drain theory by Dadabhai Naoroji and political awakening by moderates exposed the true nature of British rule. The nationalists were wide awake to the fact that instead of giving more rights to the Indians, the government was taking away even the existing ones. Some repressive acts such as Indian Councils Act, 1861, deportation of Natu brothers and arrest of Tilak in 1897, Official Secrets Act, 1904 & Indian university Act, 1904 further strengthened this hypothesis. ❖ Growth of confidence and self-respect: The new picture of India brought forward by various historians was characterized by well-developed political, social and economic institutions, a flourishing trade with world & a rich heritage in art and culture. This boosted the self respect and confidence of Indians. ❖ Growth of Education: While the spread of education increased awareness among the masses, the unemployment and poverty were also on the rise. ❖ International Influence: The defeat of the Italian army by Ethiopians (1896), the Boer wars (1899-1902) where the British faced reverses and Japan’s victory over Russia (1905) demolished myths of European invincibility. Also, the nationalists were inspired by the nationalist movements worldwide—in Ireland, Russia, Egypt, Turkey, Persia and China. ❖ Dissatisfaction with Achievements of Moderates: The first 20 years of moderates produced no concrete result and this created dissatisfaction among the younger elements of congress. ❖ Reactionary Policies of Curzon: The Official Secrets Act, the Indian Universities Act, the Calcutta Corporation Act and, above all, the partition of Bengal left no doubt in Indian minds about the reactionary nature of British rule in India. ❖ Existence of Militant School of thought: There emerged some militant leaders such as Raj Narain Bose, Ashwini Kumar Datta, Aurobindo Ghosh and Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal; Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar and Bal Gangadhar Tilak in Maharashtra; and Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab who believed in masses and emphasized on the swaraj as their ultimate goal. The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement: ❖ Partition of Bengal to Divide People: The British announced the partition of Bengal in 1903 in two provinces (Western Bengal and the provinces of Bihar & Orissa and Eastern Bengal & Assam) citing the reason that the province had become too big to be administered. But the real motive was to weaken the rising tide of nationalism in Bengal. Curzon promised Muslims that Dacca was to be made the capital of new eastern Bengal and provide them with special opportunities and unity. This showed the real intent of the rulers. ❖ Anti-Partition Campaign under Moderates (1903-05): The methods adopted for protest against the partition of Bengal were petitions to the government, public meetings, memoranda, and propaganda through pamphlets and newspapers such as Hitabadi, Sanjibani and Bengalee. Ignoring everything, the announcement of partition took place in July, 1905. After this, the pledges were taken to use Swadeshi goods and