British Colonial Conflicts in India and Beyond

The British East India Company, initially focused on trade, progressively gained power in India by exploiting and manipulating local conflicts. They strategically played one Indian ruler against another, seizing territories during the process.

Some historians believe the British period in India began in 1757 with the Battle of Plassey due to significant power shift in favor of the British East India Company. Others argue for 1764, citing the Battle of Buxar or the Third Battle of Panipat.

The British used superior weapons like muskets and cannons compared to the Indian forces, giving them a significant advantage in battles. This technological edge contributed to their triumphs.

British troops exhibited better discipline and received regular salaries, leading to a more efficient and organized military force. This contrasted sharply with the Indian forces, where appointments were often based on caste or personal connections rather than merit.

The British benefited from outstanding leaders like Clive, Warren Hastings, and Dalhousie. These figures, combined with skilled second-line leaders, formed a strong network that contributed to their success.

The lack of a unified Indian identity often resulted in Indian rulers opposing each other rather than uniting against the British, weakening their resistance against British expansion.

The British East India Company initially focused on trade, but they gradually grew to desire more power and territory. This shift marked a transition from a primarily mercantile objective to an imperial ambition.

The lack of a strong, unified Indian army, combined with internal conflicts between Indian leaders, hindered their ability to effectively resist British expansion.

The presence of the British in India inspired a need for modernization in science and technology, highlighting the stagnation and decline of Indian civilization and culture.

In the 19th century, Hinduism was filled with superstitions, magic, and harmful practices, leading to inhumane actions like female infanticide, child marriage, sati, and untouchability.

Killing female infants, early marriage, widow burning (Sati), polygamy, and restrictions on widows remarrying were common practices that oppressed women during the 19th century in India.

The lower caste people were called untouchables, hindering national unity.

The promotion of Western culture as superior fueled resentment among Indians, leading to a desire for reform.

Growing nationalism, economic changes, education, Western ideas, and global awareness inspired educated Indians to reform society.

Social reform movements focused on two main goals: improving the status of women in society and fighting untouchability.

The tireless efforts of reformers led to government action to improve women's conditions. For example, Sati was abolished in 1829.

The British occupied Assam in 1816, bringing them into conflict with Bhutan. Bhutanese raids into India and their treatment of a British envoy prompted British retaliation. This led to the British forcing Bhutan to give up control of strategic passes in exchange for an annual subsidy.

The Gorkhas, having taken control of Nepal, expanded southwards. This brought them into conflict with the British, who had annexed Gorakhpur in 1801. The Gorkhas' capture of Butwal and Sheoraj led to war, culminating in the Treaty of Sagauli (1816). This treaty forced Nepal to cede territory and Gorkhas to join the British Indian army.

Driven by the lure of Burmese resources and concerns about French influence, the British engaged in three wars with Burma, eventually annexing it in 1885. The first war (1824-26) was sparked by Burmese expansion and resulted in the Treaty of Yandabo. The second war (1852) was fueled by British commercial interests and resulted in significant Burmese resistance. The third war (1885) was a result of King Thibaw's hostility towards the British and his dealings with other European powers.

Tibet, ruled by a theocracy of Buddhist monks, raised concerns for the British due to reports of Russian influence. With fears of Russian encroachment, Curzon sent a British expedition under Colonel Younghusband to Tibet, leading to the Treaty of Lhasa in 1904.

The British sought to secure Afghanistan, fearing a potential Russian invasion. Their goal was either to have a friendly treaty with the Afghans or to annex the country completely.

The Treaty of Yandabo, signed in 1826, ended the First Anglo-Burmese War. It resulted in the Burmese ceding territory to the British, including Arakan, Tenasserim, and Assam. This marked the beginning of British influence in Burma.

The Treaty of Sagauli, signed in 1816, ended the Anglo-Nepalese War. It resulted in Nepal ceding territory to the British, including Garhwal, Kumaon, and parts of Sikkim. It also forced the Gorkhas to join the British Indian army.

The Treaty of Lhasa, signed in 1904, culminated in the British expedition to Tibet under Colonel Younghusband. It acknowledged British influence in Tibet and allowed for British trade and certain diplomatic privileges.

The Bengal Regulations of 1795 and 1804 criminalized infanticide, treating it as murder. To address the perception of female children as financial burdens, an Act passed in 1870 mandated birth registration for all babies and introduced checks on female children for several years after birth.

Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's tireless efforts led to the passage of the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act of 1856, granting widows the right to remarry. This act challenged the traditional norms that forbade widows from remarrying, promoting greater social equality.

The Native Marriage Act (Civil Marriage Act) of 1872 aimed to curtail child marriage but didn't initially apply to Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. Later, the Age of Consent Act of 1891 prohibited the marriage of girls under 12. The Sarda Act of 1930 further raised the minimum marriage age to 18 for boys and 14 for girls.

Starting with the Bethune School in 1849, numerous institutions fostered women's education, including Vidyasagar's involvement in over 35 girls' schools in Bengal. Other milestones include Wood's Despatch of 1854, Women's Medical Services in 1914, and the founding of the Indian Women's University by D.K. Karve in 1916. Women later established organizations like the All India Women's Conference (1927) to empower themselves and champion women's rights.

Several women's organizations emerged in India, advocating for women's rights and social change. These include the Bharat Stree Mahamandal (1910), Ladies Social Conference (Bharat Mahila Parishad) (1904), Arya Mahila Samaj (1882), National Council for Women (1925), and the All India Women's Conference (1927).

British rule unexpectedly influenced the mitigation of caste-based discrimination through several factors. These include the free sale of land, the introduction of modern transportation like trains that brought people of different castes together, and the concept of equality before the law through the administration and new educational system.

A core belief in Hinduism that emphasizes the cyclical nature of life, death, and rebirth, where an individual's actions in their current life determine their fate in the next.

A fundamental principle in Hinduism that describes the law of cause and effect, where actions have consequences, shaping an individual's destiny in future lives.

The Theosophical Society, founded by Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott, introduced Eastern spirituality and philosophies to the West, attracting Westerners interested in exploring esoteric and spiritual ideas.

Annie Besant became president of The Theosophical Society in 1907, emphasizing a synthesis of Hindu philosophies with Western scientific and educational practices.

The Theosophical Society, while advocating for Hindu philosophies, focused primarily on Western audiences, having limited influence among the general Indian population.

Reform movements, like the Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj, aimed to reinterpret Hinduism and alleviate social ills, but often had a limited reach, mainly impacting the middle-class rather than the broader masses.

Reform movements, while promoting a modern, secular, and rational worldview, sometimes contradicted their own ideals by overemphasizing scriptures and glorifying ancient India, leading to social divisions based on caste and religion.

British rule across vast stretches of India created a sense of political unity through a standardized civil service, judicial system, and bureaucratic structures, which helped pave the way for modern nationalism.

The belief that the British were draining India's wealth by exporting more than they imported, leaving the country impoverished.

A period in Indian nationalism marked by more aggressive tactics and demands for self-rule, often challenging the moderates' approach.

The true nature of British rule was revealed through repressive acts like the Indian Council Act, deportation of Natu brothers, and the arrest of Tilak.

The moderates, though successful in building a national movement, failed to include the masses, particularly women, in their efforts.

The Moderates aimed for administrative reforms, such as Indianizing government services, separating the judiciary from the executive, and criticizing aggressive foreign policies.

Moderates popularized modern ideas, exposed the exploitative nature of colonial rule, and laid the groundwork for future movements.

The right to express oneself freely, think independently, associate with others, and have a free press.

The arrest of Tilak and other leaders, as well as the deportation of Natu brothers without a trial, caused widespread public outrage.