Community Psychology 1.pdf

What is Community Psychology? “Community” refers to people coming together and “psychology” is traditionally concerned with the health of the individual. The two concepts are integrated to focus on the study of interaction between individuals at multiple levels: family, netwo...

What is Community Psychology? “Community” refers to people coming together and “psychology” is traditionally concerned with the health of the individual. The two concepts are integrated to focus on the study of interaction between individuals at multiple levels: family, networks of friends, workplace, school, neighborhood and the social context in which people live. Community Psychology is a specialized field that applies to and interacts with all the basic areas of psychological knowledge such as Social psychology, Group Dynamics, Personality psychology, Developmental psychology and Critical psychology. CP practice draws on research, intervention principles and the skills honed psychological training. 1.1.1 Definitions of Community Psychology CP is concerned with understanding people in the context of their communities, using a variety of interventions (including prevention, health promotions and social action) to facilitate change and improved mental health and social conditions for individuals, groups, organizations and communities. It is an approach to understanding and solving community, organizational and societal problems by applying well established psychological principles and techniques to improve wellbeing and effectiveness at the individual, organizational and community levels, considering values of social justice, inclusiveness and participation, diversity, collaboration and focus on strengths. Studies the relationship of individuals with communities and societies. By integrating research with action, it seeks to understand and enhance quality of life for individuals, communities and societies. Is a value driven, action oriented field, focused on reducing oppression and supporting individuals, groups and collective wellbeing. The key characteristics of Community Psychology: Social relevance it refers to socially responsive psychological praxis that deals with the real issues in people experience. Ecological conceptualization people’s behavior is understood in different ways- in terms of the complex interaction with their social and physical environments. Community Psychology has a holistic focus and studies structural factors and power relationships in organizations, neighborhoods and communities that can affect the lives of individuals and families. For example, homelessness is not only the result of individual or family problems, but can also be the results of a lack of  affordable housing. How we define a problem thus shapes the questions we ask and the solutions we can offer to address the situation. Action-oriented to promote health, quality of life and wellbeing. It uses psychological principles and techniques to prevent problems (rather than treating them after they arise) and promote healthy functioning for all members of a community. It makes psychological knowledge useful to ordinary people for developing resources and achieving social change. Value-driven it promotes values of social justice and collaboration. CP is practiced in diverse formats, ranging from public health parge-scale community interventions to more critical iterations that bear social justice, liberators agenda. CP can be differentiated from other fields of social science. It focuses 9n the interaction between the individual and the community, as well as on the community characteristics, culture and processes that influence the lives of people. It aims to enhance quality of life through various intervention strategies. 1.1.2 Definition of community Depending on the theoretical frameworks used, community can refer to people in a specific geographical area and time; It can refer to a social system, to a construction of a way of life or to a sociopolitical organization. During an apartheid Era this concept was used to emphasize the differences between various racial grouping and that each group has its own distinct culture. The same concept was used by the Black Consciousness movement to strengthen a sense of solidarity among black people. CP is often understood as working with disadvantaged, mainly black people. The concept of community can thus be potentially problematic because it has the potential to recall apartheid terminology and can create the notion of homogeneous or unified communities. 1.1.2.1 Community as a location Traditionally, a community is defined as a group of people in a geopolitical and physical area. A community defined in terms of geographical area can be described with regard to the following: Demographic characteristics. The social characteristics of residents in the area, such as gender, social class or family life cycle. Land use and quality of housing. The development in the area, such as high- density housing, informal settlements or large farms.  Infrastructure or formal organization. The planned development of organizations, such as school, churches or shops. 1.1.2.2. Community as a network of social relationships The essential functions of a community, such as socialization, role fulfilment, goal achievement and support, are achieved by interacting in groups. Hence, a community can be defined as a network of relationships, where people share some common characteristics or values and interests. In social networks need not to live in the same geographical area, but can work together or belong to a social organization or have virtual contact. A person feels part of a community to the extent that the following characteristics are present: Membership. A feeling of belong to a group( sense of community). Influence. The extent of mutual influence between the person and the group. Fulfilment of needs. Sharing of values and resources in the group in order to satisfy individuals needs. Shared emotional connection. People feeling connected through shared emotional experiences. Therefore, a community may be considered as a social system, with its interacting members comprising various subsystems within the community. These subsystems are both interrelated and interdependent as they interact with one another. 1.1.2.3. Community as a construction of a way of life. When one works in community, one finds that the meaning people attach to reality is informed by the physical and social contexts in which people live. Communities can therefor be defined as socially constructed, created and evolving through interaction. These are spaces where the crises and possibilities of the interrelatedness of people, ideas and issues may be encountered. Shared experiences among people contribute to the creation of a common character or way of life, influenced by sociohistorical context and the way people create meaning with regard to particular situations. The importance of the concept of social “context” in Community Psychology: The social context in which people live can impact their lives. Behaviour needs to be understood within that context. It is the context that gives meaning to behaviors.  It is the canvas against which individuals and collective behaviors can be understood. It may lead to a broader understanding of individual functioning to provide a more effective solutions or interventions to resolve problems. Social context emphasizes understanding individuals within their broader social, culture and environmental framework. 1.1.2.4. Community as a sociopolitical organization The concept of community hhas a sociopolitical meaning that reflects the political histories and beliefs of people in a given sociopolitical context. A community can therefore form a collective power structure that promotes a specific cause and influence decision-making. For example, community members can together promote safety and healthy living conditions in their neighborhood. A community can thus be viewed as a complex system of interactions between common elements (e.g. individuals, physical contexts, activities), as well as processes that occur among the components (including psychological, social, and cultural aspects). 1.2. Development of Community Psychology CP is a relatively new branch of psychology. It developed as a reaction to inability of traditional clinical psychology to address the psychosocial problems of people. Individually based interventions had a very limited impact on community health. Individual interventions can deal only with a small number of issues experienced by individual and mainly help people to adapt to the current context( regardless of whether the context promotes healthy living or not). Developed to give wider scope to psychology by focusing on community processes and intervention tools to deal with problems at various levels of the community. It emerged there through influences of the civil rights movement, where psychologists were dissatisfied with the Healthcare system, specifically the following: Mental health services were inaccessible for major sections of the population because services were expensive and irrelevant to the needs of the majority of people. The focus in psychology was exclusively on remedial services and no attention was given to the prevention of problems and the promotion of health.  Various political changes at the time contributed to the development of the new subdiscipline. In the US, the Joint Committee on Mental Health and Illness recommended radical changes in the treatment of mental ill patients to reintegrate them into the community. The social action model developed through the focus on addressing poverty, unemployment, crime, delinquency, poor education, welfare inequities, troubles in prison and various other social problems, mobilizing community members to bring about change in their communities. Over the years, CP in the US developed into a specialized field, which the Society For Community Action and Research(SCRA) becoming a division within the American Psychological Association(APA). Using the Ecological perspective as a conceptual framework to approach community issues, psychologists provided services in community settings such as schools, community clinics and housing offices and developed policies, structures and programmes to address day to day issues and the needs of communities. CP worked more closely with new focus areas resonating with its values, such as liberation psychology peace psychologists, critical psychology and feminist psychology. The core social issues that united these fields were inequality and oppression with regard to race, gender, class and other forms of difference, unjust policies and laws. In SA, Community Psychology resonates well with public health and education. CP most often develops in reaction to the sociopolitical context in which it is implemented, therefore the character of Community Psychology differs from region to region. CP in Latin America, which resembles its emergence in SA, developed alongside social struggles in the region. Liberation struggles involving the grassroots mobilization of populations towards more democratic, equitable and just social arrangements were the dominant influences in development of CP in the area. Psychologists assisted victims of violence and state-sponsored repression. They were therefore closely aligned to critical Social Psychology which works towards social and political change. CP is dynamic. It has different characteristics in different areas and is constantly developing, influenced by social context. 1.2.1. Development of Community Psychology in South Africa  The development of Community Psychology in South Africa is clearly related to the social and historical context of the country. A group of psychologists criticized psychology's failure to acknowledge and respond to the outrageous social conditions and racial disparities created by the apartheid system. Organization that opposed the state, such as the Organization for Appropriate Social Services in South Africa (OASSSA) and the Psychology and Apartheid Group (PAG), aimed at making psychology relevant to the needs of the broader community. The emergence of CP in this context was deeply political in nature. Resistance to unjust state action coexisted with action to deal with mental health issues in the community as well as implementing changes in the training and practice of psychology to make it more relevant for the context. This developing Community Psychology movement aimed to: Extend the provision of mental health services to all citizens Transform the conceptualization of psychological problems Transform psychological service delivery into a contextually appropriate service Address interracial tensions, social class inequalities, public policy and empowerment Redefine the role of psychologists to embrace advocacy, policy formation, mobilizing and networking. After the first CP textbook, Community Psychology: Theory, method and practice was published, several others followed. The values adhered to in CP are not new to broader African culture as they relate to a communal understanding of human beings, values and traditions. In SA, CP is not practiced from a unified perspective. Instead, similar to CP practises across the world, various approaches and theoretical frameworks are used to address community issues related to the context in which they are applied. 1.3. VALUES AND GOALS OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY The vision of CP is to have a strong impact on enhancing wellbeing and promoting social justice for all people by fostering collaboration where there is division and empowerment where there is oppression. This vision focuses on studying communities and translating research, values and principles into meaningful action to make a difference in the world in which we live. CP Praxis aims to strengthen the capacity of communities to meet the needs of people in order to promote wellbeing, social justice, economic equity and self-  determination through systems, organizational and individual change by paying attention to structural level issues and the equal distribution of resources. Values: are deeply held ideals ab9ut what is considered moral, right or good. They can influence goals and the means to achieve those goals. These values involve the underlying philosophy that guides all activities in CP: 1.3.1. Promotion of health and wellbeing The promotion of health and wellbeing includes the prevention of physical and mental health problems. It emphasizes the promotion of strengths and competencies on all community levels, which include individual, interpersonal and communal wellbeing. These emphasizes give CP a proactive character. 1.3.2. Sense of community The wellbeing of all people is promoted by creating shared emotional connections and feelings of belonging and by promoting social support or self-help movements. These promote a sense of community, where people care about one another and feel that they belong to a community. A sense of community is described as the perception of similarity to others, a feeling of belonging, a sense of being able to rely on and contribute to a larger dependable structure and mutual commitment that links people together. 1.3.3. Self-determination, participation and empowerment CP strives to foster self-determination and participation to promote empowerment in communities. Empowerment is a process whereby people have a meaningful say in decisions that affect them and gain control over their own affairs. A Focus on people’s empowerment means believing in their capacity to solve their own problems and mobilizing them to participate in community decisions affecting them. On community level, empowerment involves a process by which structural conditions are modified so that a reallocation of power is made possible. Empowerment interventions are based on collaborative relationships, the facilitation of resource use and sensitivity to the cultural setting. 1.3.4. Respect for human diversity and dignity  The strength of community lies, according to Rappaport, in the diverse perspectives that come different members of the community. CP thus accepts diversity of people( differences based on gender, age, ethnicity or racial identity, sexual orientation, ability or disability, socioeconomic status, religious and spiritual beliefs) and respects the rights of all people. Individuals, groups and communities are understood on their own terms, and researching interventions are tailored to those terms. Groups are encouraged to maintain their distinctiveness and make decisions about their own lives, and should not be expected to change to fit in with the norms and values of others. 1.3.5. Social justice Refers to the equitable allocation of resources, opportunities, obligations and power within a group or community. The unequal distribution of power between groups (such as gender and race groups) influences all levels of interaction in a community. CP aims to eliminate inequality, oppression and discrimination by transforming institutions and altering the basic premises of unjust systems. Social justice is seen as a prerequisite for fulfilment of the other values, because without an even distribution of social goods, other basic needs and rights cannot be fulfilled. However this is the value most neglected in psychological interventions. 1.4. CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPETENCIES OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY Following consultations with a Society for Community, Research and Action task group( an APA division), Dalton and Wolfe compiled an inclusive list of the characteristics and competencies of CP. They emphasise that applying the competencies should be underpinned by a set of commonly agreed values, discussed with all participants in a project and that these should then drive the choices and decisions that are made. Table 1.1. List of competencies Foundational principles of Community Psychology 1. Ecological perspective The ability to articulate and apply multiple ecological perspectives and levels of analysis in community practice. 2. Empowerment The ability to articulate and apply a collective empowerment  perspective, to support communities that have been oppressed and marginalized in their efforts to gain access to resources and to participate in community decision-making. 3. Sociocultural and The ability to value, integrate and cross-cultural bridge multiple worldviews cultures competence and identities. 4. Community inclusion The ability to promote genuine and partnership representation and respect for all community members and to act to legitimize divergent perspectives on community and social issues. 5. Ethical, reflective In a process of continual ethical practice improvement, the ability to identify ethical issues in one’s own practice, and act to address the responsibly. To articulate how one’s own values, assumptions and the life experiences influence one’s work, and articulate the strengths and limitations of one’s own perspective. To develop and maintain professional networks for ethical consultation and support. COMMUNITY PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT 6. Programme The ability to partner with development, community stakeholders to plan, implementation and develop, implement and sustain management programmes in community settings. 7. Prevention and health The ability to articulate and promotion implement a prevention perspective and to implement prevention and health promotion community programmes. COMMUNITY AND CAPACITY BUILDING ORGANISATIONAL 8.Community leadership and Leadership. The ability to enhance mentoring the capacity of individuals and groups to lead effectively through a  collaborative process of engaging energizing and mobilizing those individuals and groups regarding an issue of shared importance. Mentoring. The ability to assist community members to identify personal strengths and social and structural resources that they can develop further and use to enhance empowerment, community engagement and leadership. 9.Small and large group The ability to intervene in small and process large group processes in order to facilitate the capacity of community groups to work together productively. 10.Resources development The ability to identify and integrate the use of human and material resources, including community assets and social capital 11.Consultation and The ability to facilitate the growth of organizational development an organization’s capacity to attain its goals. COMMUNITY AND SOCIAL CHANGE 12.Collaboration and The ability to help a community coalition development develop a vision and take actions towards becoming a healthy community. 13.Community development The ability to help a community develop a vision and take actions towards becoming a healthy community 14.Community organizing The ability to work collaboratively and community advocacy with community members to gain the power to improve conditions affecting their community 15.Public policy analysis, The ability to build and sustain development and advocacy effective communication and working relationships with policymakers, elected officials and community leaders. 16.Community education, The ability to communicate information dissemination information to various segments of  and building public the public in order to strengthen awareness competencies and awareness or for advocacy COMMUNITY RESEARCH 17.Participatory community The ability to work with community research partners to plan and conduct research that meets high standards of scientific evidence that are contextually appropriate, and to communicate the findings of that research in ways that promote community capacity to pursue community goals 18.Programme evaluation The ability to partner with community/setting leaders and members to promote programme improvement and programme accountability to stakeholders and funders It is important to bear that in mind that these were proposed for further discussion and thus are not “cast in stone”. It is important that these ideas are used carefully to avoid “top-down” thinking, with an emphasis on assessing strengths( rather than focus on deficits). The challenge is to translate these ideas into specific roles within context. 1.5. THE FIELDS OF APPLICATION OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY 1.5.1. Intervention models The values and principles of CP can be applied through various intervention models. The application of CP in the South African context can be classified mainly in terms of three broad models of intervention: 1.5.1.1. Mental health model Through this model, mental health is emphasised and interventions are provided to individuals and groups to improve their mental health. The psychologist often takes the role of consultant, helping clients or advising other professionals on service delivery programmes. Other professionals, volunteers or community workers are often involved in service delivery to improve mental health.  This model also includes developing community support and promoting wellbeing in the community. This is therefore an extended form of providing traditional psychological help in community contexts, aimed at adaptation to the current situation. It is built on health promotion, caring and compassion as underlying values. This model continues to exert a strong influence on the practice of CP as many interventions use this intervention model. Examples are developing support groups for people living with HIV, training and consultation between psychologists and teachers to assist children in schools dealing with emotional problems. 1.5.1.2 Social action model Is a strategy to work with and mobilize community groups to bring about change in structure and procedures that inhibit their wellbeing. It is a bottom-up approach where change starts at the grassroots level It aims to bring about change at the organizational and community levels to address adverse living conditions. It promotes the values of empowerment and self-determination. For example: The social action model would be used to advocate the rights of oppressed groups, such as disabled or the poor, to develop strategies for promoting their inclusion in existing institutions. Empowering women and men to advocate against abuse of women and children. The Treatment Action Campaign that advocated for the treatment of HIV infected patients. 1.5.1.3. Liberation or psycho-political model Emphasises the influence of social structures, institutions and ideologies on the lives of individuals and society. Liberation or social transformation refers to building partnerships and working with oppressed people to raise their awareness of inequalities and to advocate for change in oppressive structures or relationships that perpetuate inequality, oppression and discrimination. When they neglect to tackle social injustices, psychologists are ineffective in their prevention and health promotion efforts because the underlying causes of these problems are often rooted in unjust resourcing, community structures or organizations.  It involves intervention on the macro level, addressing for example, cultural meanings attached to gender roles and racism. It involves raising awareness, advocacy, social change movements, grassroots community organizations, promotion of human rights, changing social policy and political action. Prilleltensky coined the concept psycho-political validity to assess the extent to which action and research contribute to community change-emphasise the importance of awareness of the influence of power in wellness, oppression and liberation at personal, relational and collective domains. To integrate this into practice, projects should be evaluated in terms of transformational validity. In view of our history of inequalities and recent social and political changes, this model of intervention is highly desirable application of CP in South Africa. 1.5.2. The role of the community psychologist The role is usually based on the practitioners values, belief system, professional orientation and the needs and assets/strengths in the community. The relationship between the psychologist and the community is also a determining factor of the role chosen. The roles may include: A participant-conceptualiser involved in the community processes trying to understand and change processes from the framework of psychological knowledge. A human service manager organizing or providing services directly where the people are. An educator or trainer providing skills to volunteers or community members A consultant or advisor as an important point of entry into a community A social change agent or activist facilitating change in a setting or with policies that disempower people A researcher or evaluator understanding problem, being attentive to social system dysfunctions or attempting to improve systems. Community Psychologist can be included in the following roles: Treatment of illness- Hospitalization- Crisis Management Prevention- Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Prevention Health Promotion- Development of Health and Wellbeing Social Action-Consultation and Advocacy Social Transformation Activism, Policy and Transformation  Community Psychologist must be able to integrate aspects of these roles in the best interests of the community with which they work. 1.5.3. Training and development of competencies in Community Psychology Involves more than just intellectual abilities- requires integrating emotions, social skills, motivations, beliefs and attitudes. Akhurst defined the competencies necessary for effective community work, summarized by the acronym RASP: Relational foundations: Building strong, supportive relationships. Activity evolution: using action research to guide decisions made by the community. Self-management: developing personal accountability and self-regulation Process awareness: understanding and recognizing influences within the process. Competencies needed to work with communities by Akhurst: Relational foundations, also referred to as “person-centered skills”, involve showing respect, actively listening, establishing rapport and maintaining a non- judgmental attitude. In community settings it’s important to remain adaptable and open-minded, fostering collaboration and co-creation through exploration and shared efforts. Activity evolution refers to how activities develop organically through co- creation and participation, often involving action research, allowing for collaboration and engagement from the community. The approach emphasizes leveraging people’s strengths and adapting psychological tools to meet community needs, with trainees being responsive and flexible in their methods. Self-management is crucial because trainees and community psychologists may face anxiety and other emotional challenges in theor work. This skill develops through reflective practice, which includes both one-on-one discussions and group supervision sessions. Eco-systemic thinking helps practitioners become more sensitive to processes, allowing them to adopt a broader perspective while recognizing structural inequalities. It’s essential to ground the work in psychological theory, training and practice, ensuring a clear connection between theory and application. Difference between Community Psychology and mainstream psychology:  It focuses on the interaction between the individual and the community, as well as on the community characteristics, culture and processes that influence the lives of people. It aims to enhance quality of life through various intervention strategies. Social Psychology studies the interaction of people but does not have a strong focus on interventions aimed at improving conditions. Sociology focuses mainly on the study of community processes, without the emphasis on individuals and their complex interactions with the social structure. Social work focuses more on changing the immediate conditions in which people live and on supporting legal processes. Clinic Psychology focuses on treating one individual at a time. CHAPTER 6: DECOLONISING( COMMUNITY) PSYCHOLOGY 6.1. INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE TERMS “COLONISATION” AND “DECOLONISATION”: Great thinkers have for decades written about decolonisation as a response to their own and oppressed people’s dehumanisation. To understand decolonisation, it is important to understand colonialism and the sociohistorical context in which it occurred. Definitions of colonialism are often limited since they refer to the physical occupation of land by European colonizers. Colonialism is closely linked to European capitalism from 1940s, when European colonizers routinely engaged in “voyages of discovery” to extend their wealth by plundering the environment and subjugation Indigenous people and their land. Not only did colonizers forcibly and sometimes violently take land on continents such as Africa, Australia, the America’s and surrounding islands, but they also controlled the fabric of everyday life by imposing their culture, language, education and spirituality on Indigenous people. Often colonialism and imperialism are used interchangeably but imperialism is different from colonialism. Imperialism refers to a powerful country extending rule in another, often smaller country, in order to access their resources. E.g. British imperial rule, governed India from 1858 to 1947. To flourish, colonialism dependence on personal racism, institutional or structural racism and cultural racism: Personal racism usually involves racist stereotypes about Indigenous groups to create a platform for their subjugation.  Institutional racism depends on politics to prevent marginalized group members from accessing resources and power in organizations. Cultural racism endorses social representations or dominant narratives about superiority of one group over another, thus generating significant societal support and power among dominant group. Colonialism was thus motivated by economic motives, colonizers obtained raw materials and cheap labour or sometimes free labour’s but more importantly, they aimed to colonise the minds and knowledge systems of the oppressed. Western science upheld these views and entrenched colonial power by scientifically validating Western thought and denigrating local knowledge as deficient, a process known as the “coloniality of knowledge”. Colonialism happened in the past but coloniality lives on in the present. Coloniality refers to the racial, social and political hierarchies imposed by European colonialism that dictate value and are internalized and enacted by ordinary citizens even by oppressed people. This phenomenon is referred to as the “coloniality of being”. 6.2. DECOLONISATION AND COLONIALITY More recently the terms “decolonisation and decoloniality” became synonymous with university student uprisings. #RhodesMustfall and #FeesMustFall. This local resurgence of the decolonial turn happened in a global context of oppressive and destabilizing global politics. It included the rise of the radial right and socioeconomic relations characterized by deepening inequality, exclusion and human suffering. To think about what decoloniality may mean, it is important to summarize the notion of coloniality as ‘the coloniser’s psychological power, enforced through physical and symbolic violence, to name the world and the self, interpret the past and preserve memory of it. Coloniality flattens human subjectivity and the possibility of humanity in the self. The effects of coloniality are felt both by the selves of those oppressed by coloniality as well as those who benefit from coloniality. Coloniality produced violence against the psyche is overwhelming, so the self is split from knowledge and understanding of itself. In other words, a lack of awareness of how coloniality impacts on one is protective, but this form of ignorance may be traumatic in the long run. Coloniality produces psychic alienation.  Decoloniality refers to efforts at rehumanising the world, to breaking hierarchies of difference that dehumanise subjects and communities and that destroy nature aims for the production of counter-discourses, counter-knowledge, counter- creative arts and counter-practices that seek to dismantle coloniality and to open up multiple other forms of being in the world. 6.3. WHY SHOULD (COMMUNITY) PSYCHOLOGY BE DECOLONISED? Psychology, typically regarded as a caring profession is notorious for its lack of care for marginalized groups. Psychologists have used psychology as a Western science to subjugate oppressed people and serve the needs of dominant groups in society. Psychology can also be considered a discipline that contributed significantly to affirming the biological bias of white superiority, through biased intelligence testing in SA and abroad. In CP, the notion of community itself has attracted much criticism for the way in which it is represented. It has become part of a dominant disciplinary narrative to assume that the term ‘community’ refers to poor, Black people. The practical challenges inherited in this misrepresentation of CP often leave so White or Black students from middle-class backgrounds believing that they do not have a community or that Black communities are more interesting than their own. The term ‘community’ itself is held hostage by the dominant gaze of colonial power that envelops community in a shroud of “otherness”. These constructions suggest that the academy is placed at the centre and communities are relegated to sociocultural, political and economically deficient “other”. It is important to dismantle established disciplinary notions of community in order to disrupt the coloniality of knowledge, which is refers to the structural power that defines knowledge and knowledge production from the perspective of dominant groups. Disciplinary norms about knowledge production when doing research relegate activist researchers to the margin of the academy. Students who learn CP also typically learn more about pathologised accounts of community (e.g. single motherhood, poverty, low literary) with less focus on the strengths or assets of community. This is an imbalance that is steadily being redressed by adopting more nuanced approaches, which take into account agency in communities.  Need for decolonial approaches that emphasizes ▪ Recognizing community agency ▪ Acknowledging strengths and resources within communities ▪ Challenging the dominant Western framework. 6.4 TOWARDS A DECOLONISED COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY Debates about decolonisation in CP are not new. In the same way Dutta argued for the decolonisation of the concept of community, a decade ago Reyes-Cruz and Sonn offered a critique of the concept of culture in CP from a decolonial perspective. They questioned the way in which the discipline of the CP uses the concept of culture as a fixed, inflexible concept devoid of any sociohistorical context. They argued that the concept of acculturation, where we adopt practices from cultures different from our own, was viewed through individualistic lenses, as if all people have a choice to acculturate or not. Researchers did not take into account the effect of histories of colonialism and oppression where marginalized people seldom have a choice as to whether they acculturate or not. The example of Afro hairstyles in university appointment processes used is a good one to illustrate that acculturation is mostly governed by dominant power relations in society and that the culture of the dominant group becomes everybody’s culture. To counteract an uncritical adoption of “culture” Reyes-Cruz and Sonn argued for a “decolonising standpoint”. They defined a decolonising standpoint as a transdisciplinary and political stance grounded in critical Social theories and methodologies to understand and expose the continuity legacy of coloniality. Personal reflexivity and reflexivity about knowledge, in this instance CP, in a particular sociohistorical context is central to a decolonising standpoint. In this regard, psychology in spite of its notoriety has also had a politically progressive S. African and global history. Critical Community Psychology traditionally aligned itself with liberatory approaches such as critical and feminist approaches to psychology, focusing on ethical values in psychology. These include values such as Social justice, engaging difference, ecological approaches, empowerment and participation.  It is also concerned with how we may achieve these aspirations with those who are most marginalized in society. It is important to recognize that CP is not unitary in its aim and practices: complex pluralities and fluidities of representation of the discipline exist across numerous geographical and political locations. Decolonisation in S.African CP focuses on four distinct interrelated issues: It questions the appropriateness of Euro-American foundations and knowledge production in psychology for SA. It foregrounds S. African CP in its geographical location of both the Global South and Africa. It highlights the significant historical mis-recognition of African knowledge within dominant Western models of knowledge production. It therefore argues for an African-centered and feminist decolonial psychology that takes into accounts oppression at the intersections of identity. 6.5. APPROACHES TO DECOLONISATION STRATEGIES IN CP, WITH ILLUSTRATIVE CASE STUDIES Adams et al.(2017) propose three core strategies for decolonisation in CP. These are (1)decolonisation as Indigenous resistance; (2)decolonisation as accompaniment and (3)decolonisation as denaturalisation. 6.5.1. Indigenous resistance Encourages praxis, which can be defined as the nexus or interface between theory and practice. It is a specific praxis in a specific context that focuses on research by researchers from Indigenous or marginalized contexts doing research with marginalized or Indigenous groups. In the S. African context marginalized people are disproportionately Black, where Blackness is understood not in terms of skin colour, but what many S. African university students colloquially refer to as “Biko black”. According to this understanding, Blackness is not equated with the apartheid categories of African, Indian and Coloured. It is a recognition of Blackness as constituted in the history of struggles against apartheid and colonialism, while recognizing how the apartment policy of divide and rule for Black people gave differential privileges to Black S. Africans and pitted them against each other.  It is important to acknowledge that not all Black people will have similar experiences of oppression, since it intersects with race, gender, class and other aspects of structural oppression that render people less than human. In example 6.2. Kessi resists imposed knowledge using Photovoice as a visual methodology to engage students to represent their own experiences and in doing so counteract stereotypes that lead collectively to internalized oppression or a colonial mentality. 6.5.2. Accompaniment It refers to the process when researchers work with and among marginalized communities, in a relationship of humility, to struggle for social justice. The approach encourages a joint effort by psychologists and communities to restore community wellbeing. It is not an approach in which the psychologists enters as an expert, prescribing solutions for communities. Example 6.3 Embroidery with women as accompaniment. 6.5.3. Denaturalisation Contrasts with the first two approaches. Whereas the first two approaches work directly with colonized people, the denaturalisation approach focuses on decolonising the dominant scientific endeavour that informs dominant science models. 6.6. DOING RESEARCH IN AND TEACHING CRITICAL COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY Research and teaching constitute a significant part of the decolonial project in psychology. In essence, the task is to subvert the coloniality of knowledge, which refers to the process where dominant knowledges are the only knowledge available and local knowledge is subjugated. Research methodologies or ways in which researchers conceptualize and carry out research say much about their knowledge-making values. Many psychology researchers have historically exploited communities to engage in research that was beneficial to the researchers but offered little benefit to the research participants or the communities where they conducted their research. In contrast, decolonial research in psychology adopts decolonising methodologies, which allow participants to engage in the research to develop their voices and to use the findings for social and policy change.  It is very common for researchers doing decolonial research in CP to use participatory research and visual methodologies. These methodologies allow participants and researchers to reflect deeply on their experiences. Suffla and Seedat suggest that reflexivity is central to participatory research and collective consciousness-raising about inequalities perpetuated by structural forms of power or the coloniality of power that shapes the everyday experiences of individuals, groups and communities. Teaching and the curriculum are central to decolonisation processes. Who teaches and where teaching happens is as important as what is taught and what is not taught. 6.7. HOW DO WE DECOLONISE COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY? There is no single route to decolonising psychology. It is an ongoing process that takes place both theoretical and practical levels. Subverting colonisation through processes of decolonisation involves engaging in social change and an aspiration to social justice, a core component of CP. This discourse is perhaps an example of abysmal lines being drawn, where one history is made visible and valuable and claims universality. This lead to erasure of other histories, leading to epistemicide, or the invalidation of non-dominant knowledges. This process is known as the coloniality of knowledge. Non-dominant knowledges usually belong to marginalized cultures, groups, geopolitical regions and traditions. This colonising process involves abstract hierarchies of power(especially the socioeconomic power that constitutes them) and contributes considerably to “cognitive injustice”. “Cognitive justice” refers to the recognition that pluralities of knowledge exist and that knowledge should be valued equally. Cognitive injustice leads us to ignore the value of the coexistence of world knowledge or ecologies of knowledge. Expanding our knowledge ecologies is thus part of the decolonial turn within CP. De Sousa Santos terms the refusal to accept uncritically dominant knowledge as the only universal knowledge as ‘epistemological resistance’. In CP we draw on traditions central to liberatory and critical psychologies to enact this resistance by drawing on disruptive or border thinking which facilitates pluraversality.  This means that it is impossible to have one universal epistemology, a view that is taking root in CP. Some of the impacts of pluraversality and cognitive justice are eloquently articulated in psychosocial theory emanating from leading African decolonial thinkers such as Fanon, Biko and Manganyi. These thinkers have meticulously detailed the psychosocial processes of alienation and internalisation of the oppressor that are likely to become central to oppressed people’s consciousness, unless interrupted through formal or informal education processes. 6.8. CRITICISMS OF DECOLONISATION IN COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY Coloniality and decoloniality are constituted by complex intersecting matrices of structural power. As much as decolonisation constitutes a powerful impetus in contemporary CP, there have been some assessment and criticism of decolonisation and decoloniality in CP. Five core criticism in recent psychological literature that serve as cautions rather than justifications not to pursue decolonial work in CP. First, Macleod et al. suggest that it will be extremely difficult to disentangle these tightly connected matrices of power since they mutate or transform across time. ▪ This results in processes that entrench coloniality as robust and self- generating, precisely because it’s victims eventually become the perpetrators of coloniality through coloniality of being. Secondly, argues that some understandings of African psychology, central to the decolonising discourse, can involve homogeneous, essentialising racial and cultural understandings of an African psychology. Third, the concept of self-representation of marginalized groups such as Indigenous or Black people may be presented simplistically and unwittingly entrench colonial singular narratives about marginalized people which can entrench racialised, sexist and classes depictions of oppressed people. A fourth criticism or potential danger of decolonisation pertains to focusing on individual experiences of oppression without addressing structural problems such as inequality or poverty. This will allow individually focused intervention to proliferate at the cost of structural interventions. Fifthly, the have been a number of criticism about decolonising methodologies in research.  ▪ Barnes raises important questions about the commonly accepted claims about decolonising methodologies such as Photovoice as empowering and that they can affect social change. ▪ He challenges this notion and argues that social unrest and protest are often driven by a groundswell of mass revolt under the socially unjust conditions of systems such as capitalism and patriarchy. ▪ Research can only assist in describing and analyzing social conditions but can never in and of itself, mobilize social change unless accompanied by the work of political and social movement. Definition of terms: Colonisation: refers to physical occupation of land by European colonizers. Colonialism: political, economic, social and cultural domination and control over the fabric of everyday life by imposing their culture, language, education and spirituality on Indigenous people. Coloniality: refers to the racial, social and political hierarchies imposed by European colonialism that dictate value and are internalized and enacted by ordinary citizens even long after the formal colonial rule has ended. For example, the coloniality of being-desiring whiteness by skin whitening creams. Decolonisation: is an effort to value the knowledges held by people and alternate forms of being in the world. Refers to the efforts to make all people’s voices heard and to acknowledge the position and right of marginalized and oppressed groups. Decoloniality: approach that seeks to rediscover, revalidate and restore Indigenous knowledge, cultural values, social and economic structures.