Community Psychology PDF

Week 1 A community is typically focused on geographical areas ○ Refers to social groups with common identifying characteristics ○ Sharing similar beliefs, values or cultural practices (e.g religious groups) In South Africa, community is understood in terms of race due t...

Week 1 A community is typically focused on geographical areas ○ Refers to social groups with common identifying characteristics ○ Sharing similar beliefs, values or cultural practices (e.g religious groups) In South Africa, community is understood in terms of race due to the impact of apartheid What is Community Psychology CP studies individuals within their broader community contexts, aiming to improve mental health, well-being, and social conditions. It is distinct from traditional psychology, which typically focuses on individual-level interventions. ○ Traditional psychology focuses on the individual factors while community psychology argues behaviour should be understood in its context ○ Emerged as a response to this gap, specifically during times of social and political unrest in 1960s North America CP focuses on prevention and promotion and addressing structural and historical ○ CP seeks to find the root of the problem in order to provide appropriate wellbeing interventions to aid psychosocial wellbeing Emergence and Principles of CP The two central features of the emergence and development of CP ○ Continuously evolving sub-discipline for understanding and intervening ○ Development influenced by the social context it has emerged in, resulting in various community psychologies First feature Though the discipline is young, CP has consistently challenged the dominant western views of human development and psychosocial wellbeing ○ Paradigm shift, stressing the importance of equality of opportunity and greater power control Argues the relevant knowledge production and research practices that benefit communities and promote social development ○ In the context of the socio-political Second feature CP is a reflection of the social demands within the social contexts in a specific time ○ History of CP is therefore diverse with multiple histories Principles and Values Social Contexts and Diversity: CP emphasises the importance of social and cultural contexts and recognizes that mental health is influenced by factors beyond the individual, including socioeconomic conditions, historical context, and community structures. Empowerment and Power Dynamics: CP promotes community control, autonomy, and empowerment, encouraging communities to take control of their lives and make collective decisions to improve their circumstances. Challenging Dominant Psychology: CP critiques traditional psychology’s individualistic approach, advocating for a broader focus that includes social justice, equity, and community-level interventions. Global Variability: The development of CP varies by country and is shaped by local social issues. It is not a single approach but a dynamic field adapting to different social needs and contexts worldwide. Key Figures Paulo Frieire ○ Critical pedagogy (Pedagogy of the Oppressed) ○ Encouraged psychologists and community leaders to work together Julian Rapapport ○ Introduced concept of empowerment South African Community Psychology CP developed as a social resistance to apartheid ○ Social crisis was brewing but also a crisis within the field of psychology ○ More writers were challenging apartheid (historically psychologists had been silent on the impact of race and racism) Psychologists had been providing services to victims of torture and political violence ○ Became more critical of the psycho-social impacts of apartheid Emergence of CP is deeply political in South Africa Week 2 Assumptions and Values of CP Characteristics of CP CP focuses on the relationship between the individual and their environment, social and historical contexts  ○ Focus on understanding this relationship for purposes of promoting the well-being of all persons in society ○ CP transforms how psychological problems, psychological services and systemic interventions and preventative measures are conceptualised Community psychologists operate as advocates, community mobilisers and policy formulators The two key points of CP: ○ Facilitate equitable access to mental health services ○ Intervene and address social factors that impact the wellbeing of individuals and the communities Values of CP Values are deeply held ideals about what is good or moral ○ Emotionally intense and honoured ○ Developed through experience CP is not only a scientific or professional discipline but also a philosophical and value oriented ○ Avoids ‘blaming the victim’ ○ Considers ecological systems (political, social, environmental) ○ Encourages citizen participation and local empowerment Value discussions are critical in defining social issues, aligning actions with core beliefs, and understanding community culture. Common Values in CP Addressing oppression Oppression is the structures and processes that reflect systemically discriminatory power dynamics Biographical factors that impact (race, gender, class, disability, religion, sexual orientation) Targeting bigotry and discrimination Personal and Political Empowerment The development of personal sense of control over one’s life (both socially and psychologically) Ensuring societal resources are equitably distributed Community and citizen participation are central Risk Prevention and Health Promotion Risk prevention is identifying and addressing factors that place people at risk Levels of prevention (Caplan): 1. Primary: reduce potentially harmful circumstances before they create difficulties 2. Secondary: targets groups at risk and aims to reduce severity 3. Tertiary: focus on persons and situations that display dysfunction  Health promotion is the developing of wellbeing and quality of life for all people Includes combination of education and environmental supports for actions Major actions to promote health (Ottawa Charter): 1. Building public policy 2. Creating support systems 3. Strengthening community participation 4. Developing personal skills 5. Reorienting health services Developing psychological ‘sense of community’ Focus of sense of belonging and that community members mean something to one another Main components: ○ Membership ○ Influence ○ Integration ○ Fulfilment of needs ○ Emotional connection Psychological sense of community aka social cohesion Cultural relativity and diversity Valuing the differences among people and communities and a commitment to resources for all Respect human differences and the right to be different Ecological Framework The main-theoretical framework of CP Viewing a person in their context with a focus on understanding the relationship between individuals/groups/communities and their social context ○ Person-Environment Fit: Recognizes that individual well-being is shaped by relationships and the environment, emphasising a holistic view that considers family, community, and societal influences. ○ Multilevel Interventions: Focuses on individual, relational, and community levels to address issues such as empowerment, social support, and systemic oppression. Additional Values Individual and family Psychological and physical health Wellbeing needs to be addressed on a personal, relational and community levels ○ Includes risk and preventions factors Goal is to reduce risk and strengthen protective factors Levels of wellness include: ○ Personal (health, determination, spirituality, liberation from self oppression)  ○ Relational (diversity, collaboration, compassion, liberation from interpersonal oppression) ○ Collective (social justice, sense of community, support, liberation from societal oppression) Indicators of personal wellness is measured on positive qualities (resilience and satisfaction) ○ Negative qualities include harmful environments, societal inequalities, dysfunctional interpersonal patterns Sense of community Four elements according to McMillan are: membership, influence, integration of needs and shared emotional connection Membership: ○ Boundaries ○ Symbols ○ Emotional safety ○ Sense of belonging ○ Personal investments Influence: ○ Power that members can exercise in terms of the community ○ Power that the community exerts on members Integration and Fulfilment of needs: ○ Integration includes shared fundamental values and ideals ○ Involves exchanging of resources ○ Satisfying individual needs through the community Shared emotional connection ○ Shared history and experiences ○ Created by meaningful emotional interaction and understanding Sense of community ○ Prevents psychological problems ○ Improves wellness and quality of life ○ Links individual with the community ○ Needs to be balanced with other values ○ Can create scapegoats Respect of human diversity The value focuses on defying easy generalisations and rather understanding people and communities in their own terms Respect for diversity is balanced alongside social justice and sense of community Social justice Defined as fair, equitable allocation of resources, obligations and power in a society as a whole ○ Means working with people who are disadvantaged and/or marginalised by the social system Social justice has two meanings: ○ Distribution justice (equitable resource allocation)  ○ Procedural justice (fair representation of citizens in decision making processes) Citizen participation Emphasise that community members are the true experts of their own situation Encourages decision making processes are in the hands of the community ○ Create an atmosphere of participation and collaboration ○ Increases commitment to decisions Relates to empowerment and procedural justice The process of citizen participation builds existing strengths within the community to create sustainable change Empirical grounding Community psychology is overtly committed to conducting research that, in its process and product, facilitates empowerment ○ Participatory action research framework is often used Research in Community Psychology Community research is integral to Community Psychology as it aims to meet the needs of communities directly. This involves: ○ Providing actionable information to communities. ○ Encouraging social change by engaging key stakeholders in problem-solving. ○ Acknowledging that research is value-driven, not neutral. Community psychologists utilise research to foster community understanding and support solutions that are led by the community itself. ○ The research design often incorporates ecological aspects, such as race, socio-economic status, and gender, and seeks involvement from the community at all stages. Participatory Ethos In community-based research, a participatory approach is central. Community members act as participants, not objects of study, and researchers play an active role. Community Needs Assessment Engagement with the community to find out what they need ○ The purpose is to comprehensively evaluate the current situation of the community as a whole and to identify local priorities Community needs assessment may include: ○ Assessing health and psychosocial issues of the community members ○ Examining community infrastructure and service provision ○ Identifying community resources  The ethos of participation, collaboration and empowerment is central to any research conducted The approaches to defining a community: ○ Geographical community: people in the same neighbourhood ○ Relational community: interpersonal relationships Five major for data collection: ○ Key informant (interviews w expert) ○ Public forum (citizens discuss in public meeting) ○ Nominal group process ○ Delphi technique ○ Survey approach Some researchers employ a combination of the approaches Participatory Action Research (PAR) Inter-relationship between social inquiry and social change ○ The researcher takes role of participant and promotes community empowerment ○ Aims to lessen divide between researcher and researched Central goals ○ Facilitate social inquiry into community problems through community participation ○ Facilitate process of education for development ○ Employ research as part of process of social action Policy Research Policies are formed as a response to specific needs that are identified ○ Also to change and shape behaviour ○ Government policies are important to CP because they impact large numbers of people and influence community wellbeing ○ CP promotes social change through policy research and advocacy Targeted on local, provincial, national and international level CP perspective to policy research provides a unique perspective through: ○ Shows importance of conducting community-relevant research ○ Emphasises research between research and action ○ Considers ecological levels that contribute to psychosocial problems ○ Advocates to participatory approach to governance Policy research can be led by community members and organisations in conjunction to community psychologists ○ Occurs organically in communities with the absence of community psychologists Policy research is used to as part of a process of empowerment and to strengthen existing initiatives ○ Has potential impact on individual and collective wellbeing Week 3 Social Ecological Model Initially, community psychology relied on the Mental Health Model (MHM) which was developed as an extension of the of the medical model Key points of criticism of the MHM ○ Resource intensive ○ Too reliant on expertise of professionals ○ Insufficient attention to the socio-economic The Social Ecological Model emerged when psychologists saw the need to move beyond one-to-one therapy and were more involved in health promotion and risk prevention ○ Focus is on the interaction between the person and environment ○ Assumes behaviour is a result of interactions between context and individual Approaches prevention in an attempt to address mainstream psychology to consider social systems and radicalise understanding of psychosocial problems Four Principles of Social Ecological Model Interdependence Multiple components of a social context are interrelated and influence the other parts Change in one part of the context can create change in another part Distribution of Resources Different types of resources money, time, human resources, political support We understand community functioning by analysing the definition, distribution, utilisation and development of these resources Interventions can affect the way resources are defined, created and distributed Adaptation Refers to the process whereby people cope with available resources in their environment ○ Is it a lack of resources that triggers adaptive responses Communities adapt to maintain their functioning through generating social rules, structures and beliefs Adaptation creates awareness and acceptance of human diversity Succession The orderly process of community change as a way of adapting to new situations ○ Communities histories may impact how they respond to new situations Bronfenbrenner Bronfenbrenner described the environment in which development takes place in terms of a series of of nested systems fitting into each other Useful in examining multiple causes that contribute to a problem ○ Each layer impacts the other in a interdependent way Proximal systems are those closest to the individual (micro and meso) and distal systems are those less immediate that have broad effects (exo, macro and chrono) There is constant interaction between each of these systems The ecological theory highlights the larger complex interaction within a community and does not focus on the individual in isolation Application of SEM in Community Psychology Community psychologists use SEM to: ○ Emphasise the interdependence of relationships and address both direct and indirect factors influencing individuals. ○ Conduct research and interventions that consider the broader social environment. ○ Focus on empowering communities by addressing challenges across all levels of SEM, from personal relationships to societal systems. The Social Ecological Model thus offers a comprehensive view of behaviour, recognizing that individuals exist within multiple, interactive layers of influence, each contributing to the complexities of human behaviour and community dynamics. Mental Health Model Mainstream psychology focuses on the individual and family as primary units Within the MHM the focus shifts to the community and the population ○ The model suggests that many mental health and social problems are distributed across large segments of the population ○ These problems emerge in similar contexts and are considered to be caused by similar risk factors Prevention is a key assumption of the MHM ○ Mainstream approaches are described as being curative (intervening only once in the individual experience) ○ Prevention suggests that we should focus on avoiding the development of psychological problems Prevention It refers to the interventions that aim to modify processes and mediating conditions that create risk for problems in living The concept of risk is central, specifically in terms of social context The central task of prevention programmes is to identify and address those factors that place people at risk Key Concepts of MHM by Butchart and Kruger Epidemiology: define characteristics of a target population Demography: helps specify the size of the problem Incidence: distribution of the problem within the population Prevalence: total number of cases in the population Types of Prevention (Caplan) Primary Prevention Preventing the occurrence of the event for the entire population Risk factors are identified and interventions are developed before any signs of problems ○ Aim is to reduce incident rate E.g national teen pregnancy campaigns Secondary Prevention Early identification and management of the problem to reduce the severity and influence the outcome of a disorder Identity disorder in early stages E.g consulting with pregnant teens and talking to teens who already engage in risky sex behaviour Tertiary Prevention  Aims at identifying an existing disorder and limiting its impact and recurrence ○ Difficult to distinguish from treatment E.g counselling programmes for teen parents Types of Interventions (Price) Universal interventions Interventions targeted at the whole population ○ Advantage is that intervention would outweigh any possible unwanted side effects Selected interventions Targets high risk groups who are likely to develop disorder Indicated interventions Targeted at high risk groups who already show early symptoms of the disorder Frameworks Biomedical framework Most dominant Mental disorders are conceptualised as diseases and various abnormalities in brain functioning are identified as the primary causes of the difficulties Biopsychosocial framework Acknowledges the role of biological factors but suggests social factors are also crucial Eco-systemic framework Most influential Combination of mental health and ecological models Suggests any phenomena can be explained as a function of various interacting systems ○ Individual, family and community ○ Both have risk and protective factors MHM in action translates prevention into action which is dependant on the paradigm used Additional consideration must be taken in the South African context ○ Interventions need to address multiple risk factors at multiple levels and should build protective or resilient processes ○ Interventions need to be diverse and tailor to different cultural contexts ○ Community participation to ensure preventative programmes are effective Four Stage Model of Prevention (Butchart and Kruger) 1. Define the problem 2. Identifying causes 3. Developing and implementing the interventions 4. Measuring the effectiveness of the intervention Evaluating the Model Disadvantages The dominant influences (biomedical and bio psychosocial) retain the ‘disease’ metaphor ○ Mental health issues are seen as discrete entities as identified in the DSM-V ○ Diagnostic criteria are taken as fact and not human judgements and social contexts (e.g sangomas and schizophrenia) ○ Diagnosis serve to pathologize rather than empower the individual (stigmatisation and victim blaming) Limitations on the way ‘risk’ prevention is conceptualised within the model ○ The MHM does not ground explanations of risk in theories of social inequalities Advantages The MHM provides a useful approach in the mental health field to contest the dominance of traditional ways of seeing and dealing with the people’s problems Prevention has succeeded in shifting the boundaries of mental health intervention ○ The challenge remains to complement this with theories of social inequality as to not lose sight of the values of social justice (faced in SA and internationally) Week 4 Power and Violence Power is regarded as the ability to influence others, this stems from ○ Social status ○ Access to knowledge and information ○ Ability to inflict force or persuasiveness Michel Foucault Explored the relationship between power and knowledge He argues that institutions, laws and ideologies as structures of power Her argues that exercising power relations does not exclude the use of violence to achieve the desired impact on the actions of others Defining Violence An act of violence is distinguished from an act that represent a violation ○ A violation refers to an infringement of a rule, a law or the rights of another person Violence may refer to a form of coercion that is used to compel individuals to act in a particular manner that is against their will Violence is a feature in all societies but the nature or magnitude differs in contexts ○ South Africa’s socio-political past has shaped the way violence is recognised in this country Hussein Balhan ○ Violence is any relation or process by an individual or group that violates the physical or social integrity of another World Report ○ Intentional use of physical force that threatens another person that has a high likelihood of injury, death, psychological or deprivation Forms of Violence Collective Violence Violent acts perpetrated by large groups of individuals or nations Collective violence can take the following forms: ○ Social violence: violent act serving an agenda (mob violence) ○ Political violence: serves political imperative (state violence) ○ Economic violence: violent acts carried out for economic gain (preventing access to basic services) Collective violence receives more attention in from the public and media ○ Needs to be understood in social, historical and political contexts Particular forms of violence are prevalent in South Africa as they are linked to the violent history of racial oppression ○ Collective violence was a hallmark of the apartheid regime and was a central element of maintaining racist policies ○ The residual effects of our violent past still impact ○ Many interpersonal and individual forms of violence that we experience today are consequences of the violent history Violence Against Vulnerable Groups Interpersonal violence occurs between relatives, intimate partners, acquaintances or strangers ○ CP is focused on the socially vulnerable and oppressed ○ Elderly, children, women Women are always found to be inequitable compared to men ○ Lack of gender equality in society contributing to violence ○ Violence against women in SA is 5 times higher than the global average ○ Violence against women is a form of interpersonal violence  Violence against women has many negative psychological outcomes including fear, anger, depression, shame, humiliation and mistrust ○ Can lead to development of various disorders like PTSD ○ Lead to collective traumas in communities ○ Can limit occupational and educational participation of women Violence Against Children Children are not afforded the same degree of social participation as adults Types of abuse: ○ Physical: actual or potential harm ○ Emotional: failure to provide appropriate developmental support ○ Child sexual abuse: involvement in sexual activity that they are not prepared for ○ Neglect: failure to provide adequate care ○ Exploitation: involving children in work for the benefit of others (child labour) Child abuse can having lengthy psychological and emotional effects ○ Accurate records of abuse are often not kept (children cannot communicate what is wrong) ○ Importance in maintaining accurate monitoring mechanisms Sexual Violence Acts of sexual violence are not primarily motivated by sexual desire (power and control) ○ Underpinned by dynamics of power and control ○ Girl children more vulnerable to sexual violence Systematic rape (weapon of war) has been used to demoralise populations Rates of rape are the highest in SA ○ Many rapes go unreported ○ Due to prevalence of HIV/Aids, risk for women is higher due to sexual violence Interventions Consciousness raising ○ Campaigns of awareness Social action ○ Organising peaceful protesting for the cause Community development ○ Greater participation of women and children in decision making Community coalitions ○ Form united service providers Organisational consultations ○ Strategies used in schools, workplaces for gender equality, violence and power abuse Alternate settings ○ Creating places of safety Policy research and advocacy ○ Examining existing policy and resolving areas that are not addressed Poverty South africa is classified as a upper-middle class country but the majority of the country is poor Poverty must be considered in historical context: ○ During the apartheid the state encouraged structural poverty that was largely based on race (white people had greater access to public assistance) ○ The legacy of apartheid was intertwined with poverty Extent and Distribution of Poverty Poverty can be defined as the inability to attain a minimal standard of living, measured in terms of basic consumption needs of the income required to satisfy them ○ A deprivation of resources, opportunities and choices and its persistence and reproduction in South Africa ○ The poverty rate is the proportion of people in particular groups falling below the poverty line (currently at 71%) ○ Poverty is not only confined to one racial group, however it is concentrated amongst black people mimicking the poverty trends during apartheid Negative Effects of Poverty Poverty has a direct effect on people’s wellbeing ○ Insufficient food and malnutrition ○ Susceptibility to disease (HIV/Aids and TB) ○ Infant mortality ○ Low life expectancy ○ Shack fires Link between poverty, mental health and inequality is complex and it is important not to stereotype impoverished people ○ Resilient people normally come from secure communities that offer them opportunities for social and personal development ○ Resilience is the ability to thrive, mature and increase competence in the face of adverse circumstances There are unique challenges that impoverished people face that impact their mental health indirectly ○ Malnutrition, injury and disease ○ Uncorrected vision and hearing problems ○ Poor children taking on parental responsibilities (child headed households) ○ Increased stress ○ Vulnerability to abuse (physical, mental, emotional) ○ Health services less accessible ○ Witness/victims of violent acts Poverty Experience Poverty is typically characterised by crowded conditions, poor access to safe and effective energy sources and lack of access to stable employment Food security (availability, stability, access and utilisation) are affected by poverty Poverty is linked to the breakdown of family life ○ Street children ○ Child abuse and neglect ○ Sex work ○ Crime ○ Substance abuse ○ Loss of time Absence of power and severe emotional stress Unemployment The unemployed can be divided into two groups 1. Totally unemployed: those who are not economically active at all. They may be working but are not in the formal or informal sectors (example?) 2. Under-employed: those who are working but not on a regular basis and are mostly casual workers The SA labour market is divided into informal and formal sectors (majority of poor people participate in informal sector) The formal sector is further divided into primary and secondary sectors (the majority of poor people participate in the secondary sector) ○ Primary: regulated and characterised by higher wages. Organised workforce and opportunities for upward mobility ○ Secondary: less regulated and workers have lower skill levels. Opportunities for training and upward mobility are limited Categories of Unemployment 1. Poorly educated in rural areas 2. Poorly educated in urban areas 3. Young unemployed with no labour market experience 4. Long-term unemployed with no labour market experience 5. Those with some labour market experience and some education 6. Highly educated and unemployed Guidelines for effective Anti-Poverty Interventions Facilitating good access to economic and employment opportunities ○ Address income poverty Increase physical asset to the poor ○ Housing, land, equipment for economic enterprise Facilitating basic services for the poor  ○ Water, sanitation, waste management, affordable and safe energy, transport, education, health and shelter Enhancing democratic participation by the poor in public decision making Ensuring access to legal entitlements and security ○ Access to relevant information on human rights and socioeconomic rights Strategies to Address Poverty Poverty alleviation: providing the destitute with access to food, safe portable water, safety from abuse and the provisions of shelter Poverty reduction: reducing depth of poverty by providing opportunities for income, access to education, employment and business opportunities Poverty eradication: systemic reforms to increase political empowerment of the poor to participate actively in measures aimed to addressing structural causes of poverty Week 5 Race and Child Health Many racist practices still linger in South African society and race and racism are still central to social organisation (schools, university, restaurants, beaches) ○ There has been a growing trend of middle and upper class black people moving to white residential areas ○ But many are forced to continue life in impoverished areas that are under-resourced Access to social and economic resources is still limited do to racial orders Key Concepts Race Social phenomena Construct that gives meaning to superficial physical differences Race is used to legitimise the marginalisation, exploitation, and oppression of groups of people Racialisaiton Process of which people are constructed to belonging to a race on the basis of certain biological attributes ○ Non-physical attributes are assigned ‘racial’ values (e.g cultural practices) ○ Construction of a person’s social status and worth Racism An ideology is through which the domination or marginalisation of certain racialised groups is enacted and legitimised ○ Set of ideas and practices that aim at reproducing and justifying systemic inequalities between racial groups Section 28 (Children’s rights) Children have the right to basic nutrition, shelter, basic healthcare and social services, and protection from maltreatment, neglect, abuse degradation or exploitative labour ○ The right to health is implied (physical, mental and social) Racialised Patterns of Care Children in South Africa are particularly vulnerable to violence, effects of HIV/Aids and food insecurity Race is an important predictor for both health status and access to healthcare ○ Black children are at a significant disadvantage in comparison to their white counterparts (this is due to the differential social attitudes and treatment of white and black children During apartheid, access to healthcare was stratified along racial lines and the legacy of separate healthcare is still felt (white South Africans being able to economically afford private healthcare while black South Africans reliant on the under-resourced public system) Ways of Addressing The problems faced in racialized child healthcare according to Rappaport is that there are multiple diverse origins and calls for divergent solutions Ross (2003) characterises two different types of interventions for healthcare ○ Upstream: aimed at directly influencing social, economic and political policies, processes and practices Aim of upstream is redressing racialised patterns of child health (macro levels) ○ Downstream: redressing racialised healthcare in terms of child health by connecting race and factors that it conceals Interventions would be home visitations, pre-school support systems prenatal support groups and infant support programmes Contextual Enablers of HIV South Africa has experienced the fastest growing and most severe HIV epidemic Contextual factors that are societal and community factors ○ Culture, political, religion and history Biomedical approaches would focus on the individual and how the virus interplays with the biology of the person and focus on a cure, vaccine and medication Social ecological model focuses of the environmental factors and the relationship between the individual and the environment and how contexts impact HIV Key Factors Apartheid During the global increase of HIV/Aids, South Africa was internationally isolated and trying to maintain the apartheid system (there was little focus on the Aids epidemic) ○ Migrant labour, disruption of family life, poverty and overcrowding contributed to the spread of HIV The post-apartheid government focused on the more pressing concerns of national building and economic and infrastructural reform Poverty HIV cannot be separated from poverty ○ Majority of South Africans live under the poverty line ○ Spread of HIV is linked to unemployment, lack of education and crime and violence Low-income contributes to malnutrition which makes people more susceptible to the virus Women more likely to engage in high risk sex to increase income Absence of public health infrastructure and resource ○ Hastens spread of HIV ○ Few people can afford private care Gender Inequality In patriarchal contexts, men are more likely to initiate sex and sometimes determine whether or not a condom is used (attitudes around condom use contribute) ○ Patriarchal norms encourage men to engage in sexual conduct with multiple partners, further increasing risk of spread of HIV Barriers of Treatment Motivated by certain beliefs, ideas and convictions (South Africa is a conservative nation) Stigma A powerful obstacle in getting people to get ARV treatment Stigmatisation turns into discrimination to HIV positive people ○ Discrimination is a violation of human rights Prevention and Management Context is extremely relevant in terms of community psychology Understanding of how the enablers of HIV interact with the individual and how to combat and intervene against them South Africa has a history of providing psychosocial interventions, counselling and psychotherapy ○ CP mental health practitioners need to combat against the issue of accessibility  CP interventions focus on preventing HIV by addressing individual, social, and environmental factors. ○ Community Education: Initiatives focus on re-education around HIV, addressing misconceptions, and reducing stigma. ○ Risk Factor Reduction: Programs target risk factors that drive the epidemic, making individuals and communities resilient to HIV. Expanding Access to Mental Health and Psychosocial Services Psychosocial Support: Historically underserved communities often lack access to mental health services (e.g., counselling, family therapy, HIV testing support). Advocacy: CP practitioners work to extend mental health networks beyond clinical settings, aiming for equitable access to psychosocial support for all. Collaborative Efforts Interdisciplinary Networks: Effective HIV management requires collaboration between government, NGOs, CBOs, and businesses. Community Engagement: CP practitioners facilitate partnerships across these sectors to provide accurate, community-supported information on HIV prevention and policy-making, ultimately enhancing the resources available for managing the epidemic. By addressing these contextual enablers and expanding community-based support, CP practitioners aim to create sustainable and effective strategies for HIV prevention and care in South Africa Week 6 Homelessness Homelessness is a violation of our basic human rights, under the United Nations Centre for human settlements there are 4 groups of homelessness: ○ Rooflessness ○ Homelessness ○ Insecure accommodation ○ Substandard housing It is difficult to determine the exact number of homeless as those living on the streets, under bridges and in public toilets are not accurately represented In South Africa homelessness is defined as those who lack real homes, live in bad housing, sleep on pavements, lack basic needs (water and sanitation) and lack means to satisfy personal needs (self-determination, creativity, dignity, expression and voice) ○ Generally those who lack shelter from the elements According to the BOR, everyone has the right to housing and it is the government’s responsibility to ensure the available resources to achieve progressive realisation of this right Ecological Approach Homelessness is contributed from a variety of factors that are outside of the control of the individual ○ Lack of low-income housing ○ Poverty manifests in lack of education, access to resources and unemployment which impacts to homelessness ○ Consequences of apartheid and the displacement of people and barring of land purchase (majority of homeless are previously marginalised groups) ○ Increased rate of urbanisation Psychological Impact of Homelessness There is high prevalence of mentally ill amongst the homeless population (many being institutionalised) ○ Lack of resources means that many homeless people who are mentally ill are unable to care for themselves once they are released Substance abuse is prevalent amongst the homeless ○ Often drugs are used as a way to cope with the unbearable circumstances and harsh reality ○ Substance abuse users often lose their possessions and homes as a result of their addiction Parental instability, out of home placement for children, inadequate family support during childhood Street Children Stresses within communities have led children to seek substitute families in gangs and on the streets ○ Many are children who are orphaned (adult mortality and aids related deaths) and have no extended family to support them Many children turn to substance abuse, unsafe sexual practices (sexually transmitted diseases), crime, child labour, child murder and child trafficking Street children do not have adequate shelter, nutrition, schooling, health care and emotional support ○ Lack of access to healthcare can lead to increase in fatal diseases that could have been treated (TB) ○ Lack of nutrition during development can lead to physical and mental impairments ○ Lack of education can lead to compromise in cognitive developments ○ Lack of parental supervision leaves these children vulnerable to exploitation and exposure to crime at a young Informal Settlements People living in informal settlements generally don’t have legal tenure over the land they occupy Lack access to adequate and safe water, sanitation, electricity and welfare Connected to the legacy of apartheid Often stigmatised and prevented access to social resources and existing social policies ○ Lack of optimism and hope in communities due to marginalisation Role as Community Psychologist Social, psychological and physical impact of homelessness warrants intervention ○ Homelessness is a multi-systemic issue Interventions must take into consideration of different factors that lead to homelessness ○ Social justice, participation and empowerment ○ Sustainable and long term solutions should be used and the existing and available resources should be considered The Elderly (go back to slides) The elderly are stereotyped as a burden to society Most research on the elder has been conducted on high income elderly people (they are normally isolated in retirement facilities and private homes) ○ In SA most households are integrated with the elderly Factors that contribute to the role of elderly people in low income households ○ Traditional and cultural values ○ Government grants being too low for the elderly to live on their own ○ Older people having to take on parental responsibilities for the grandchildren (substance abuse, aids, cultural values) Late Stage of Adulthood Improvements in medicine and standard of living have increased the life expectancy (but mostly for the wealthy) ○ Life expectancy in SA is 45-49 years (the global average is 70-72) ○ Factors of influences are gender, socio-economic conditions and culture Elderly women are more likely to be single or widowed due to higher mortality rate for men More than half of the elderly do not have a formal education (legacy of apartheid) leaving dependant on others Poverty Poverty includes social exclusion, deprivation and vulnerability ○ Linked with malnutrition, ill-health, social disruption and crime  25% of all elderly people in SA are poor (impacted by apartheid education policies limited potential obtaining of wealth) HIV/Aids Older people with HIV are stigmatised against ○ Gender inequality and prejudice increasing the vulnerability of infected women ○ Women are often left to parent the children of deceased people with HIV Abuse 53% of the elderly have experienced physical, psychological or financial abuse ○ Due to the value placed on the elderly in society, the abuse they experience not only impacts their wellbeing but the communities wellbeing Resilience Is the capacity of the individual to recover from difficulties and setbacks or even thrive when confronted by adversity ○ Research has shown that older people have significantly high resilience in terms of adversity and hardships Older people employ various strategies to counter obstacles: ○ Intrapersonal: nurturing a sense of hope, perseverance and empathy. Utilising memories and experiences of times challenges were faced ○ Interpersonal and Community: maintaining warm, intimate and satisfying reciprocal relationships with other people. Friendship and active participation in community projects (e.g church) ○ Behavioral: little research has been done here but those who lead healthier lifestyles tend to manage adversity better. Humour helps build stronger interpersonal relationships and navigate stressful events