Community Based Policing- Exam Review..pdf

Community-Based Policing- Exam Review. CHAPTER 1: Community a social unit of any size that shares common values (e.g., of safety, security, and well-being); a group of people who are connected by durable relationships Durable relations relationships that are strong, lasting, and endure through the p...

Community-Based Policing- Exam Review. CHAPTER 1: Community a social unit of any size that shares common values (e.g., of safety, security, and well-being); a group of people who are connected by durable relationships Durable relations relationships that are strong, lasting, and endure through the pressures and changes that life, family, and neighbourhood can bring The Mobilization and Engagement Model of Community Policing They divided neighbourhoods into four zones: red, amber, blue, and green. (Red zone, where police respond most often) to those that benefit from all of the qualities of community ● ● ● ● ● ● Higher Demand neighbourhoods High levels of victimization High crime and social disorganization (red zone) High emphasis on crime suppression and enforcement Targeted enforcement Community policing should identify individuals, groups, and organizations to come together to provide support and solve social disorder (Green zone, where police rarely have to respond). Of course, many neighbourhoods fall in between those two extremes. ● ● ● ● ● Lower-Demand Neighbourhoods Fewer illegal activities Least social disorder (green zone) People sharing common values for a safe and secure neighbourhood Community policing here means ensuring the practices that are already in place feel effectively connected to the police Criminogenic factors: Community or personal characteristics that can signal problems of crime and social disorder Social control: The ways in which people influence each other's thoughts, values, feelings, and behaviour in their neighbourhood Three strongest sources are of social control: family, friends, and neighbours Amber zone neighbourhoods are those that request many calls for service and have many repeat calls, but where there are some people and organizations that share common values and work hard to promote safety and security. Blue zone neighbourhoods are those in which there are far more people and organizations that share common values and work together to deal with common threats to safety and well-being and request fewer calls for police assistance. Social capital positive relationships between people that enable them to work together for the common good The Building Blocks of Social Capital: Building Community ● Identification, strengthening, and linking of the neighbourhood’s tangible resources and intangible resources ● Social capital is lacking in high-demand relationships ● Social capital is positive relationships between people that enable them to work together for the common good Social Capital and Police-Community Relations ● Police continuously adapting and transforming to changing times and demands ● Police role helping broken neighbourhoods reconnect with each other ● Ensuring police legitimacy and procedural fairness as police work through these challenges Three types of agencies that populate the web. 1) Municipal 2) Publicaly funded agencies 3) Community organizations Social Disorder ● ● ● ● ● ● Crimes rates continue to decline Increased calls for service: 70–80% involves non-chargeable offences Increases costs of policing Social disorder drives people apart Social determinants of health driving social disorder to high levels These determinants are things like mental health issues, poverty, addictions, negative parenting, etc. Police legitimacy neighbours value what the police do in their neighbourhood and they value how the police do it Recidivism reoffending that occurs after the completion of treatment or sanctions for previous criminal behaviour Procedural justice fairness or perceived fairness in procedures Community index •People’s economic, social, health, psychological, spiritual and relationship factors •Measurement tools to determine communities score on economic, social and physical well being Community cohesion strong and positive relationships between people who may have different backgrounds, tackling community problems together and developing a positive climate for community-building Social determinants of health as defined by the Ontario Association of Chiefs of Police (OACP), “protective factors such as access to income, education, employment and job security, safe and healthy working conditions, early childhood development, food security, quality housing, social inclusion, cohesive social safety network, health services, which ensure equal access to all of the qualities, conditions, and benefits of life without regard to any socio-demographic differences”; in the policing sector, they are often called the “social determinants of safety” Community-based organization organization of community members that is usually dedicated to community service of some kind, frequently but not always incorporated, and most often a not-for-profit organization that raises funds to support its activities CHAPTER TWO Pre-Colonial Indigenous Societies. Many Indigenous societies organized as communal villages. Law was not statutes passed by legislatures; rather, it took the form of commonly shared values for proper living. Standards for respectful, fair, safe, and healthy behaviour in community was a lived daily experience that could not be separated from other aspects of community life, like hunting, fishing, and ceremonies. All community members learned these shared values on a daily basis from childhood onward. Violations of shared values were rare.1 The rules for good living were also contained in traditional stories of past disputes and how they were resolved, rather than codified criminal offences Sir Robert Peel—“policing by consent” Sir Robert Peel is often considered the originator of our Western policing model Sir Robert Peel (in 1822), to try to design a more transparent and publicly accessible police service. The model on which most contemporary Western policing is based emerged from Sir Peel’s efforts, which culminated in the Metropolitan Police Act 1829.21 It established London’s Metropolitan Police Service, known today as “the Met.” nine principles of policing, which are popularly known as “Peelian principles”: 1.To prevent crime and disorder, as an alternative to their repression by military force and severity of legal punishment. 2.To recognise always that the power of the police to fulfil their functions and duties is dependent on public approval of their existence, actions and behaviour, and on their ability to secure and maintain public respect. 3.To recognise always that to secure and maintain the respect and approval of the public means also the securing of the willing co-operation of the public in the task of securing observance of laws. 4.To recognise always that the extent to which the co-operation of the public can be secured diminishes proportionately the necessity of the use of physical force and compulsion for achieving police objectives. 5.To seek and preserve public favour, not by pandering to public opinion, but by constantly demonstrating absolutely impartial service to law, in complete independence of policy, and without regard to the justice or injustice of the substance of individual laws, by ready offering of individual service and friendship to all members of the public without regard to their wealth or social standing, by ready exercise of courtesy and friendly good humour, and by ready offering of individual sacrifice in protecting and preserving life. 6.To use physical force only when the exercise of persuasion, advice and warning is found to be insufficient to obtain public co-operation to an extent necessary to secure observance of law or to restore order, and to use only the minimum degree of physical force which is necessary on any particular occasion for achieving a police objective. 7.To maintain at all times a relationship with the public that gives reality to the historic tradition that the police are the public and that the public are the police, the police being only members of the public who are paid to give full-time attention to duties which are incumbent on every citizen in the interests of community welfare and existence. 8.To recognise always the need for strict adherence to police-executive functions, and to refrain from even seeming to usurp the powers of the judiciary of avenging individuals or the State, and of authoritatively judging guilt and punishing the guilty. 9.To recognise always that the test of police efficiency is the absence of crime and disorder, and not the visible evidence of police action in dealing with them. SARA:Scanning,Analysis,Response,Assessment PARE: Problem identification,Analysis,Response,Evaluation CAPRA: Clients,Acquiring and analyzing information,Partnerships,Response,Assessment Problem-oriented policing a police approach that analyzes, and sets out to resolve, problems that underlie repeat occurrences or other patterns of offences and social disorder In the traditional policing model, the focus was on reactive policing, which entailed: responding as quickly as possible upon report of a crime; investigating the incident, victims, and perpetrators; documenting every stage of the investigation; catching criminals and making arrests; supporting prosecutions of those arrested; and conducting random patrols to deter other potential perpetrators. Acknowledging the Social Determinants of Health 1. income and social status, 2. employment and working conditions, 3. education and literacy, 4. childhood experiences, 5. physical environments, 6. social supports and coping skills, 7. healthy behaviours, 8. access to health services, 9. biology and genetic endowment, 10. gender, 11. culture, and 12. race/racism What Police Do Well •Targeted Enforcement: Enforcement actions that are targeted on locations where offences are most likely to occur, on persons who are most likely to offend, and at times when offences are most likely to occur •Maintaining an Active and Visible Presence •Community Engagement •Problem-Solving What Police Do Poorly •Overreliance on Enforcement •Bad Manners and Procedural Justice •Systemic Racism •Problem-Solving and Analysis •Reducing Fear of Crime and Increasing Police Legitimacy •Crime Prevention •CPTED Consultation •The DARE Program •The Use of Enforcement to Address Social Disorder •Acknowledging the Web of Organizations Chapter 3: Police Act The acts shown in Table 3.1 describe the primary duties and responsibilities of police officers and services in terms of traditional policing—police are seen as enforcers, responding to crimes and disorder. For example, the Police Act for Saskatchewan requires police members to: perform all duties ... in relation to: 1. the preservation of peace; 2.the prevention of crime and offences against the laws in force in the municipality; and 3.the apprehension of criminals, offenders and others who may lawfully be taken into custody. Police Service board Police acts also define the functions of police boards, which, depending on their geographical location, may operate under different names.15 In Ontario, such boards are known as police services boards; however, in British Columbia and Saskatchewan, they are referred to as boards of commissioners.16 Coming from the community, police board members must represent community interests. In jurisdictions with established police boards, the typical number of members is between three and nine.17 For instance, in Ottawa, the police services board has seven members: three from city council, three appointed by the Province of Ontario, and one appointed by city council as a community representative.18 Provinces that don't have police boards: Newfoundland and Labrador Northwest Territories Nunavut PEI Yukon Quebec- Only when two or more municipalities agree to create a shared police service Police associations or unions: Discussion about systemic factors within policing would be incomplete without considering the influence of police associations or unions on how police do their jobs. Thomas and Tufts traced the development of police unions in the United States and Canada back to the 1800s, when fraternal police unions prevailed.38 By the late 19th and early 20th century, police officers began to make formal attempts to unionize; however, it was not until after the Second World War that they gained recognition. police unions engage in negotiating collective agreements, which determine the working conditions, salaries, benefits, and rights of police officers, and they are active in disciplinary hearings and arbitration What police do poorly? Police are good at enforcement. It is what they are uniquely qualified, mandated, and resourced to do. But as we noted in Chapter 2, the traditional policing model, which relies on these capabilities, has changed in recent years to accommodate community problem-solving, striking meaningful and effective partnerships with other community agencies and organizations. However, problems remain. Very little police training focuses on these skills, very few police agencies have organized themselves in ways that promote and support the application of these capabilities, and very few police supervisors are good at transferring these performance expectations to front-line officers. Chapter5 Scanning durg house problem- SARA -Scanning The most common approach among Canadian police agencies is SARA, If we apply the SARA approach to our earlier analogy of deciding what clothes to wear, each step in the process might look something like this: Scanning: “I want to wear the right clothes for what I’m going to do today.” Analysis: “What am I going to do today and who am I going to be seeing?” Response: “I should pick something more formal for that job interview—maybe a suit.” Assessment: “Now, to look in the mirror and see if that works!” Four factors influencing flawed police problem analysis: 1.Insufficient Time 2.Insufficient expert guidance on the problem 3.Oversimplified problem-solving models 4.Insufficient consultation with local informants about the problem •SARA and CAPRA can be grossly oversimplified •Problem solving is not linear •Problem solving is iterative; it moves back and forth, and around and around \ Chapter 6 Management by consensus: With majority rule, the majority has the power to decide, Chapter 7 Why Should Police Collaborate? reasons police and other agencies and organizations need to collaborate more often. As Spezza and Borbely have said, “Multi-field collaboration can utilize an expanded array of strategies, resources, and capabilities to create outcomes one agency cannot accomplish alone.”1 Barriers to Effective Collaboration: Systemic BarriersCore Differences Among the Partners Tensions and Suspicions Structural Shortcomings CHAPTER 7 Barriers to Effective Collaboration - Police Agencies themselves - Other Agencies - Core Differences among the partners - Tensions and suspicions - Structural Shortcomings Agency representatives need to: - Engage in strategic planning for the collaborative; - Develop goals and activities for the collaborative on which each member can agree; - Communicate often and thoroughly with all partners; - Draw on available expertise around specific issues as they come up; and - Spread responsibility for funding and other resources as broadly as possible among all partners Australian Institute of Criminology: ● 229 community based crime prevention initiatives ● Police involved in 69% ● Other government agencies 27% ● Balance completed by variety of services, social services, media, ● youth programs ext Chapter 8 Community Safety and Well-Being Web Six Steps in Community Based, Risk-Focused Problem Solving Chapter 9 Community Safety and Well-Being Framework Social Development: By investing in social development, prevention and risk mitigation we are trying to reduce the demand for and costs of emergency response, if the red circle represents a community's investment in emergency response - we can reduce those demands and costs by investing more in social development - representing the green ring Prevention: - Focuses on proactive measures that are designed to keep bad things from happening in the community Notice that adding the blue ring of prevention shrinks the red ring of emergency response Risk Mitigation: - Communities systems for acknowledging when risks become so threatening that it becomes necessary to rally all community resources to immediately reduce those risks and thereby prevent the anticipated harms HUBs that are mitigating acutely elevated risk all across Canada perform this function Risk mitigation is the amber ring like a traffic light - its the precursor to the need for emergency response Emergency Response: - Emergency response is reactive - police & other first responders response happens after something bad has already happened Incident driven All of the other three are designed to prevent crime and social disorder Six Principles of Community Safety Planning 1. Highest Authority in the Community Should Publicly Announce Its Commitment to the Initiative and Charge Others to Join 2. Effective Communication Among the Partners and with the Public Is Key 3. Collaboration Among Agencies, Organizations, Businesses, Community Groups, and Individuals is Essential 4. Planning Must Be Risk Focused 5. Planning Must Be Asset Based and It Must Include All Assets in the Community 6. Planning Must Be Data Driven and Evidence Based London Police Community Based Positions / Units C.O.R. Unit: Community Oriented Response Unit Persons at Risk Sergeant: Sgt. Luanne Devine C.O.A.S.T. Unit: Community Outreach & Support Team. Diversity Officer: Sergeant Ziyad Zabian and constable Chris HenryThe London Police Service has a diversity officer who encourages and builds strong relationships between the London Police Service and the diverse communities within the City of London. In addition, this officer is responsible for creating new partnerships, identifying needs and assisting in responding to those needs. Victim Services of Middlesex London: JOHN ELSTON Victim Services of Middlesex-London (VSML) is an organization providing practical assistance and emotional support to help victims of crime and/or tragic circumstances and contributes to a safe and healthy community through collaboration and cooperation with Police and Emergency Service Personnel. CHAPTER 1 COMMUNITY *a social unit of any size that shares common values (safety, security, and well-being), a group of people who are connected by durable relationships COMMUNITY CAPACITY BUILDING The identification, strengthening, and linking of a neighbourhood’s tangible resources (people, organizations, businesses, housing, and natural environment) and intangible resources (relationships among residents, spirit of community, pride in the neighbourhood, and willingness to work together for the common good) COMMUNITY COHESION *strong and positive relationships between people who may have different backgrounds, tackling community problems together and developing a positive climate for community-building COMMUNITY-BASED ORGANIZATION Organization of community members that is usually dedicated to community service of some kind, frequently but not always incorporated and most often a not-for-profit organization that raises funds to support its activities CRIMINOGENIC FACTORS *Community or personal characteristics that can signal the probability of crime or social disorder (like broken windows), create opportunities for them (like leaving valuables unattended), or actually cause them (like domestic violence and poor parenting) DURABLE RELATIONS *relationships that are strong, lasting, and endure through the pressures and changes that life, family, and neighbourhood can bring POLICE LEGITIMACY *Neighbours value what the police do in their neighbourhood and they value how the police do it PROCEDURAL JUSTICE Fairness or perceived fairness in procedures RECIDIVISM *Reoffending that occurs after the completion of treatment or sanctions for previous criminal behaviour SOCIAL CAPITAL *Positive relationships between people that enable them to work together for the common good SOCIAL CONTROL *the ways in which people influence each other’s thoughts, values, feelings and behaviour in their neighbourhood SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH *As defined by the OACP “protective factors such as access to income, education, employment and job security, safe and healthy working conditions, early childhood development, food security, quality housing, social inclusion, cohesive social safety network, health services, which ensure equal access to all of the qualities, conditions, and benefits of life without regard to any socio-demographic differences” also known as social determinants of safety (health index) SOCIAL DISORDER *a condition in which the behaviour and activities of people at a specific location lack sufficient control or order, deviating significantly from what would be considered by most to be comfortable, reasonable, or safe VICTIMIZATION Ill-treatment like bullying, oppression, discrimination, abuse, and harassment at the hands of another person or other people CHAPTER 2 CONSULTATION Seeking information, advice, input and reactions to policing priorities, investigations and actions from the broader public EXTRAJUDICIAL MEASURES Steps taken outside of the formal court system, to hold a person accountable for their actions, some examples could be restorative justice practices, community service activities, or a simple police caution LOCATION POLICING Having select officers dedicated to specific neighbourhoods, so that they can get to know the neighbourhood and neighbours can get to know them PROBLEM-ORIENTED POLICING Police approach that analyzes, and sets out to resolve, problems that underlie repeat occurrences or other patterns of offences and social disorder REASSURANCE POLICING Maintaining relationships with the public that reduce their fears of crime and social disorder TRADITIONAL POLICING Reactive policing based on the military model of rapid response and efficient follow-up to harmful incidents CHAPTER 3 ACCOUNTABILITY SYSTEMS Systems of management and communication that provide evidence about how well police do what is expected of them COMMUNITY ASSET SURVEYS Inventories of individuals, agencies, organizations, and businesses, including their interests and capabilities in furthering safety and well-being COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT Police building ongoing, trusting and mutually respectful relationships with neighbourhood citizens, community-based organizations and other agencies for the purposes of resolving local neighbourhood problems that threaten safety and well-being COMPSTAT A program for analysis of occurrence data that is used to prioritize and mobilize police enforcement actions INTEGRITY VIOLATIONS Forms of misconduct, ethical violation, and corruptive or obstructive practives by police against colleagues or memebrs of the public, which can erode trust and credibility both from within and outside of the police INTELLIGENCE-LED POLICING The practice of using intelligence to identify the risk that offences, harms, or victimization will occur rather than as an investigative tool after offensive and harmful incidents have occured PROCEDURAL JUSTICE Fairness or perceived fairness in procedures ROLE STRAIN Tensions and stresses an individual officer feels form conflicting demands on their performance and behaviour SITUATIONAL CRIME PREVENTION MEASURES Measues that target specific types of offences, like the use of double-bolt locks to prevent break and enters SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT MEASURES Measures that increase peoples access to the social determinants of health SYSTEMIC Situations where a problem is seen to affect the entirety og an institution or organization and not just a small part of it TARGETED ENFORCEMENT Enforcement actions that are targeted on locations where offences are most likely to occur, on persons who are most likely to offend, and at times when fofences are most likely to occur UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING (UCR) A standard of crime reporting that counts occurrences by type and frequency, invented by the US FBI in 1966 in order to obtain a standard of reporting across all american law enforcement agencies, it is also used in canada and some other countries CHAPTER 4 PREVENTION Proactively implementing evidence-based situational measures, policies, or programs to reduce locally identifies priority risks to community safety and well-being PROTECTIVE FACTORS Positive characteristics or conditions that can moderate the negative effects of risk factors and foster healthier individuals, families, and communities thereby increasing personal and/or community safety and well-being RISK FACTORS *Negative characteristics or conditions in individuals, families, communities, or society that may increase social disorder, crime or fear of crime, or the likelihood of harms or victimization to persons or property RISK MITIGATION *Efforts to identify individuals, families, groups, or locations at imminent risk of harms or victimization and to customize interventions that reduce those risks before an emergency response is required SAFETY AND WELL-BEING FRAMEWORK A logical basis for identifying and understanding the relationships among tactics for deriving community safety and well-being SILO Metaphor for the way that many public service agencies operate with separate enabling legislation and mandates, competitive budgeting processes, and technical isolation from each other, resulting in a social service system that makes it very difficult for these agencies to collaborate - Collaborate with different agencies SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Long-term, multidisciplinary efforts and investments to improve the social determinants of health and thereby reduce the probability of harms and victimization SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP The attempt to leverage solutions to social problems with the techniques of business CHAPTER 5 ASSET PRINCIPLE The idea that even in the most disadvantaged neighbourhoods, there are people, agencies, organizations, and groups that can and will make good decisions for themselves and their neighbourhoods, and will engage constructively in community problem solving COMMUNITY COHESION Strong and positive relationships between people who may have different backgrounds, tackling community problems together, and developing a positive climate for community-building CPTED (crime prevention through environmental design) A wide range of spatial, architectural, and physical measures applied to buildings and grounds in order to strengthen their security and the security of people who use them GATEKEEPERS A term sociologists use to refer to community members who know the most about what is going on in a neighbourhood, and on whom others can rely for that kind of information MOBILIZATION MOMENT A brief moment in time during which police draw neighbours’ attention to a community problem through their enforcement actions PROFOUND INTERVENTIONS Interventions that go deeper than incident response and enforcement ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS The process of discovering the root causes of problems in order to identify appropriate solutions TARGET HARDENING Efforts taken through situational measures to strengthen the security of people, places, or things CHAPTER 6 ACCOUNTABLE Accepting responsibility for ones actions APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY An organizational development technique that advocates building on what residents already experience as positive characteristics of their neighbourhood ASSET-BASED COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT A community development approach that takes the stance that even the most police resource-intensive neighbourhood has human assets that can be mobilized to strengthen the neighbourhood COMMUNITY CIRCLES A technique for facilitating communication and social cohesion that ensures that all participants have equal opportunity to speak, also known as talking circles, family group conferencing, community justice circles, or restorative justice circles CONSENSUS A decision-making process that prioritizes the decision or outcome that all persons involved will support as the best one in the current circumstances INVENTORY OF COMMUNITY ASSETS A bank of information about the assets in a neighbourhood, including its physical assets, community groups or associations, and human assets, that can be drawn on for resources to achieve neighbourhood improvement and problem solving MAJORITY RULE A decision-making process in which a decision or outcome that gains the greater share of votes (that is, a majority) is the decision that is chosen as final RESTORATIVE JUSTICE An approach to healing and repairing relationships, with the involvement of victims, offenders, and communities transformed by a crime or wrongdoing; goals include accountability, healing, restoration of relationships, reintegration of the offender into the community, and reducing future offence CHAPTER 7 BACKBONE ORGANIZATION An agency in a collaborative that agrees to undertake some of the administration, supervision and oversight required to suppor the collaborative COLLABORATION Two or more social or human service organizations working together to realize mutually derived and valued goals COLLECTIVE IMPACT Working together, across sectors, to resolve large-scale social problems with shared goals, responsibilities and accountabilities CROSS-SECTORAL COLLABORATION Two or more agencies from entirely different sectors, working together to achieve shared goals SECTOR A group of organizations with specific expertise, mandate specialization, and resource allocation SHARED MEASURES Measures that all partners agree are meaningful and to which all partners have some data to contribute SITUATION OF ACUTELY ELEVATED RISK A situation that negatively affects the health or safety of an individualm, family, group or place where there is a high probability of imminent and significant harm to self or others SITUATIONAL TABLE (OR HUB) A regular meeting of front line workers, from a variety of human services agencies and sectors, who work together to identify individuals, families, groups, or locations that are at an acutely elevated risk of harm and customize multi-disciplinary interventions to mitigate those risks VALUE-ADDED Extra capabilities that become possible when people work together WICKED ISSUES Problems that have many causes that fall into different sectors of specialization CHAPTER 8 COMMUNICATION NODES Connections between and among agencies and organizations that allow new information to flow among them COMMUNITY INTELLIGENCE Information about community dynamics that originates with community members and is used by community members to improve their own social control over issues like crime and social disorder KNOWLEDGE-BASED POLICING Using information technology, like social media, and collaboration with partners from other sectors to get new knowledge about the social drivers of crime and anti-social behaviour, and then intervening by managing risk POLICING Community members exertion of social control for preserving order and preventing harms or victimization from crime or anti-social behaviour CHAPTER 9 ASSET BASED Building a community safety and wll-being plan on the skills, knowledge, experience, and capabilities of community agencies, organizations, and individuals COMMUNITY SAFETY AND WELL-BEING PLANNING The collective effort of community agencies, organizations and individuals to determine the greatest risks to safety and well-being planning on the basis of empirical evidence that those decisions are valid DATA DRIVEN Making decisions about priority risk factors, measures to mitigate those risks and goals of community safety and well-being planning on the basis of empirical evidence that those decisions are valid EMERGENCY RESPONSE The expedited mobilization of emergency services, like fire, ambulance, or police, in response to someones cry for help POLICE LEGITIMACY Neighbours value what the police do in their neighbhourhood, and they value how the police do it PREVENTION Proactively implementing evidence-based situational measures, policies, or programs to reduce locally identified priority risks to community safety and well-being PRIORITY PROBLEMS Focusing the goals of a community safety and well-being plan on risk factors that threaten the most harms or the greatest number of victims in the community RISK FOCUSED Basing decisions about investing community resources in increased community safety and well-being on hard data about real threats to community safety and well-being RISK MITIGATION Efforts to identify individuals, families, groups or locations at imminent risk of harms or victimization and to customize interventions that reduce those risks before an emergency is required SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Long-term, multi-disciplinary efforts and investments to improve the social determinants of health and thereby reduce the probability of harms and victimization CHAPTER 10 APPLIED RESEARCH The practical application of science to solve practical problems BASIC RESEARCH Science used to improve scientific theories or predictions of natural phenomena COMMUNITY-BASED RESEARCH The application of research methods in a real community setting, as opposed to a more highly controlled, laboratory setting CONTINGENCY TABLE A two-way, or two-dimensional, table that arrays frequencies of one variable in relation to another DIRECT OBSERVATION Type of observation in which an enumerator works off a prescribed list of questions and records respondents’ answers in a question-and-answer format ENUMERATORS People who gather survey data (VIA interviews, direct observation) EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES Any variables (factors, conditions, circumstances, etc) that could affect results of an evaluation FOCUS GROUPS Groups of community members who are asked to discuss their feelings, reactions, and attitudes to whatever the program manager is interested in while an observer takes notes about the discussion MAIL SURVEY A survey in which the respondent indicates their reactions on a self-administered questionnaire and then mails that form back to the surveying organization PEER-REVIEWED JOURNALS Scholarly journals that ensure quality information by virtue of the fact that no article gets published in them unless it has been vetted by scholars in the field to which it pertains POPULATION Everyone to whom the evaluator expects to generalize the program evaluation findings PROGRAM EVALUATION Applied research that is designed to test the efficacy (effectivenss and efficiency) of a program QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Measures the why and how of something; yields more in-depth description than quantitative measures QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Measures who, what, when, where, things that are fairly discrete and can be observed fairly easily with high reliability and validity SAMPLE A subset of the population that is presumed to be representative of the population on the criterion measures the evaluation is asking about