Communication Process, Management & Development (Intermediate I) Study Pack PDF

R ED I N S T I T U TE T R E O A CH F...

R ED I N S T I T U TE T R E O A CH F GE R I A PER S O NI NN F L E O MA T N A G E ME N STUDY PACK ON COMMUNICATION PROCESS, MANAGEMENT & DEVELOPMENT I N T E R M E D I AT E I C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I COMMUNICATION PROCESS, MANAGEMENT & DEVELOPMENT INTERMEDIATE I @CIPM 2023 FOURTH EDITION CHARTERED INSTITUTE OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT OF NIGERIA CIPM House, 1 CIPM Avenue, Off Obafemi Awolowo Way, Opposite Lagos State Secretariat, Alausa, Ikeja, Lagos. Tel: 07001237555 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Website: www.cipmnigeria.org Facebook/X/Instagram/Youtube: @cipmnigeria LinkedIn: Chartered Institute of Personnel Management of Nigeria All rights reserved, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without the permission of CIPM NIGERIA. i C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I FOREWORD This fourth edition of the CIPM study pack is one of the learning resources recommended to persons preparing for certification through professional examinations. It is uniquely prepared to meet the knowledge standards of HR certification bodies and/or degree awarding institutions. The study pack is highly recommended to researchers, people managers and organisations responsible for human capital development in its entirety. Each chapter in the text has been logically arranged to sufficiently cover all the various sections of this subject as itemised in the CIPM examination syllabus. This is to enhance systematic learning and understanding of the users. The document, a product of in-depth study and research, is practical and original. We have ensured that topics and sub-topics are based on the syllabus and on contemporary HR best practices. Although concerted effort has been made to ensure that the text is up to date in matters relating to theories and practices of contemporary issues in HR, nevertheless, we advise and encourage students to complement the study text with other study materials recommended in the syllabus. This is to ensure total coverage of the elastic scope and dynamics of the HR profession. Thank you and do have a productive preparation as you navigate through the process of becoming a seasoned Human Resources Management professional. Olusegun Mojeed, FCIPM, fnli President & Chairman of the Governing Council ii C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS On behalf of the President and Chairman of the Governing Council, Mr Olusegun Mojeed, FCIPM, fnli and the entire membership of the Chartered Institute of Personnel Management of Nigeria (CIPM), we acknowledge the intellectual prowess of Mr. Raphael Sunday, ACIPM in writing this well-researched text for Communication Process, Management and Development. The meticulous work of our reviewer, Dr. Adeoye Olutayo Oyewola, MCIPM has not gone unnoticed and is hereby acknowledged for the thorough review of this publication. We also commend and appreciate the efforts of members of the Education Committee of the Institute, under the chairmanship of Mr. Henry Onukwuba, MCIPM for their unflinching support. Finally, my appreciation goes to my internal project team, led by the Director, Professional Standards and Development, Mr. Gbenga Samuel Odetunde ACIPM, the Team lead, Certification and Licensing, Mr. Samuel Eviewho, ACIPM and Team lead, Professional Examination, Mr. Yinka Oyedere, MCIPM for making this project a success. Oluwatoyin Naiwo, FCIPM Registrar/Chief Executive iii C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD..........................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................iii CHAPTER 1………………………………………………….……………………………...1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION……………………………………1 1.0 Learning Objectives………....……………………………………………………….1 1.1 Introduction………………....…….…………………………………………………..1 1.2 Meaning and Process of Communication…………...……………………………..1 1.3 Media of Communication……….....………………………………………..………2 1.3.1 Oral Communication………………….……….…………………………………….3 1.3.2 Written Communication…………………..……….…………………………………3 1.3.3 Electronic Media of Communication………….…………………………….………4 1.3.4 Non-Verbal Communication……….……….……………………………………….5 1.4 Importance of Communication…….....…………………………………………….6 1.5 Barriers to Effective Communication...............................................................8 1.6 Choice of Appropriate Communication Medium………………………..……….11 1.7 Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Communication…......………………………...13 1.7.1 Interpersonal Communication………………………………………………….….13 1.7.2 Intrapersonal Communication………………………………………………….….14 1.8 Communication Networks……………………………………………….…………14 1.8.1 The Fan or Wheel Network……………………..………………………………….15 1.8.2 The Single Strand or Chain Network………………………………….…………..16 1.8.3 The All Channels Network………………………………………..………………..18 1.8.4 The Large Loop or Circle Network……………………………………..………….18 1.8.5 Small Loop Network……………………………………...………………………...18 1.9 Communication Flow in Informal Communication…………....…...…………...18 1.9.1 Cluster Pattern……………………………………………………………………….19 1.9.2 Probability Pattern……...…………………………………………………………...19 1.9.3 Gossip Pattern……………………………………...………………………………..19 1.10 Conclusion………………………………...…………………………………………19 Case Study…………………………………………………………………..………………22 References/Further Reading…………………………………………...…………………. 23 iv C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I CHAPTER 2……………………………………………..…………...…………………….24 ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION AND ENGAGEMENT PROCESS……...……24 2.0 Learning Objectives…………………….…………………………………...……...24 2.1 Introduction…………....……………………………….……………………………24 2.2 Formal Communication Channels…………….....……...………………………..24 2.3 Line Management…………………………………………………………………...25 2.4 Downward Communication Channel………………….....……………………….26 2.5 Upward Communication………………...…………………………………………26 2.6 Horizontal Communication……………...…………………………………………27 2.7 Quasi-Vertical Communication…………......……………………………………..29 2.8 Diagonal Communication………………………………….....…………………...30 2.9 Informal Communication Channels….....………………………………………...31 2.10 Factors that Determine the Use of Informal Channels…………………….…….32 2.11 Managing Information from the Informal Channels….....………………………34 2.12 Conclusion…………………………...………………………………………………36 Review Questions………………….………………………………………………………. 36 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)……………………..…………………………………36 References/Further Reading……………………………………………………………….38 CHAPTER 3…………………………………………….…………………………………. 39 LISTENING SKILLS……………………………...…………………………………………..39 3.0 Learning Objectives…………………………………….…………………………...39 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………..………………………………39 3.2 Listening……………………………..……………………………………………….39 3.3 Types of Listening…………………..………………………………………………..40 3.3.1 Casual Listening……………………………………………………………………..40 3.3.2 Active (Focused) Listening……………………………………………………….….40 3.4 Purposes of Listening…………………………………………………….………….41 3.5 Barriers to Effective Listening……………….....…………………………………...41 3.6 How to Enhance Listening…………....…………………………………………….42 3.7 Conclusion……………………………………....…………………………………..42 Review Questions…………………………………………………………………….…….43 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)………………………………………………………..43 References/Further Reading……………………………………………………………….45 v  C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I CHAPTER 4………………………..……………………………………………………….46 READING SKILLS..................................................................................................46 4.0 Learning Objectives....................................................................................46 4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………....……………46 4.2 What is reading comprehension?................................................................46 4.3 Tasks in Reading Comprehension………………....……………………………..46 4.3.1 Understanding the Factual Contents…………………………..…………………47 4.3.2 Contextual Meanings of Words…………………………………………………...47 4.3.3 Denotative and Connotative Usage of Words……………..…………………….48 4.3.4 Drawing Inferences…………………………………………....…………………...49 4.4 Procedure for Tackling Comprehension Questions……………………….……..49 4.5 Bad Reading Habits…………………………………………………………….…..50 4.6 Types of Reading…………………………....………………………………………52 4.7 Barriers to Effective Reading…………………………………………….....……...54 4.8 How to Enhance Reading………………………….....…………………………...55 4.9 Vocabulary Development………………………………………….....…………...55 4.10 Conclusion…………………………………………………….....…………………57 Review Questions………..………………………………………………………………….58 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)………………………………………………………..58 References/Further Reading……………………………………………………………….60 CHAPTER 5………………………………………………………..……………………….61 WRITING SKILLS…………………………………………..………………………………..61 5.0 Learning Objectives…………………………...…………………………………...61 5.1 Introduction……………….…………………………………………………………61 5.2 Defining Writing………………....…………………………………………………61 5.3 The Process of Writing……………………………………………………………...62 5.3.1 The Prewriting Stage………………………………..……………………………...62 5.3.2 The Writing Stage…………………...……………………………………………...63 5.3.3 The Revising Stage…………………………..……………………………………..64 5.4 The Paragraph………………………..…………………………………………….64 5.4.1 Essential Components of a Paragraph……………………………..…………….65 5.4.2 The Essential Qualities of a Paragraph………………………………..…………66 5.4.3 Linking of Paragraphs……………………………..……………………………….67 5.4.4 Paragraph Development………..……………..…………………………………..68 5.5 Outlining and Organisation……………………………..………………………..69 vi  C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 5.5.1 What is an outline?.....................................................................................69 5.5.2 Types of Outline…………………………………………...………………………..69 5.5.3 The Outline Drawn by a Writer….………………...……………………………...69 5.5.4 The Outline from Texts……………………..……………………………………...70 5.5.5 Organisation of Outlines…………………………….…………………………….70 5.5.5.1 The Topic Outline…………………………………………………………………70 5.5.5.2 The Sentence Outline………………………..…………………………………...71 5.5.5.3 The Paragraph Outline……………………………………….…………………..71 5.6 Barriers to Effective Writing…………………………………….……………………..72 5.7 Proofreading and Editing……………………..………………………………………72 5.7.1 Proofreading…………………………………………………………………………73 5.7.2 What to watch out for while proofreading………………………………………..74 5. 8 Editing…………………………………………………….…………………………...74 Review Questions……………………………………………….………………………….75 5.9 ESSAY WRITING………………………………………………....…………………….76 5.9.1 Types of Essay……..…………………………………………………….………….76 5.9.2 Narrative Essay…………………..…………………………………………………76 5.9.3 Features of Narrative Essay………….…………………………………………….77 5.9.4 Descriptive Essay……………………….…………………………………………..79 5.9.5 Expository Essay…………………………………………………………………….80 5.9.6 Argumentative Essay……………………..………………………………………...82 5.9.7 Methods of Writing Argumentative Essay………..……………………..………..83 5.9.8 The Structure……………………………………………………...………………...83 5.10 Summary Writing……………………..…………………………………………….84 5.10.1What is summary writing?...........................................................................84 5.10.2 Executive Summary……………………………………………………..…………90 5.10.3 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….90 Review Questions……………………………………………………….…………………. 91 References/Further Reading……………………………………………………………….94 CHAPTER 6……………………………….………………………………………………. 95 SPEAKING SKILLS…………………………………………………………………..………95 6.0 Learning Objectives………………………………………………………………….95 6.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………….…………95 6.2 What is speaking?..........................................................................................95 6.3 Verbal and Non-verbal Cues…………………………………………………….…..96 vii C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 6.4 Barriers to Effective Speaking………………………………………………………...96 6.5 Principles of Effective Speaking………………………………………………………97 6.6 Attitude and Emotion in Speech…………………………………..………………….98 6.7 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….....…..102 Review Questions…………………………………………………………………..…….102 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)………………………………………………….…..103 References/Further Reading…………………………………………………….……….105 CHAPTER 7…………………………………………………………..………………….106 GRAMMAR AND USAGE……………………………………………………………..….106 7.0 Learning Objectives…………………………………………………….………….106 7.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..…106 7.2 Common Grammatical Errors……………………………………………...………107 7.3 Words Commonly Confused……………………………………….……………….108 7.4 Homonyms………………………………………………………………..………….114 7.5 Polysemy………………………………………………………………………………115 7.6 Nouns: Count and Non-Count…………………………………………..…………117 7.7 Sequence of Tenses and Time………………………………………………………120 7.8 Punctuation…………………………………………………………………..……….126 7.9 Word Classes…………………………………………………………………………141 7.10 Sentence Structure…………………………………………………......…………..173 7.11 Grammatical Concord and Common Errors…………………............………..181 7.12 Conclusion………………….......………………………………………………….191 Review Questions……………………………………………….………………………..192 References……………………………………………………….………………………..193 CHAPTER 8………………………………………………………….…………………..194 BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE………….……………………………………………..194 8.0 Learning Objectives………………………………………………………………….194 8.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..194 8.2 Types of Business Letter…………………………………………………….………..194 8.3 Writing a Memo……………………………………………………………………...201 8.4 Writing a Circular…………………………………………………...……………….205 8.5 Types of Meeting……………………………………………………………………..208 8.6 Writing Minutes……………………………………………………………………...209 8.7 Notification of Meeting and Agenda………………………………………………212 8.8 Electronic Mails (E-mails)…………………………………………………………...213 viii C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 8.9 Conclusion……...…………………………………………………...……………….215 Review Questions………………………………………………………………………...215 References/Further Reading……………………………………......…………………...217 CHAPTER 9………………………………………………………….…………………..218 TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING…………………………………….…………………...218 9.0 Learning Objectives………………………………………………………………….218 9.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..218 9.2 Writing a Proposal…………....……………………………………………………..218 9.3 Writing a Report…………………………………………...…………………………221 9.4 Presentation of Technical Material……………………………….………………...225 9.5 Writing a Project Report…………...………………………………………………...226 9.6 Resume Writing…………………………...………………………………………….227 9.7 Design of Advert…………...………………………………………………………...230 9.8 Design of Forms……………………………………………..……………………….231 9.9 Newsletter………………...…………………………………………………………..232 9.9.1Periodicity of Newsletter……….......………………………………………………233 9.10 In-House Journal……………………………………………....…………………..233 9.10.1 Periodicity of House Journal Publication………………………..……………..234 9.11 Bulletins……………………………………………………………………………..234 9.12 Importance of Data Reporting…………………………………….………………234 9.13 Working with Charts…………………………………………………...…………..235 9. 14 Conclusion………………………………………………...……………………….237 Review Questions………………………………………………………………………...238 References/Further Reading………………………...…………………………………...242 CHAPTER 10…………………………………………………….………………………243 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION……………………………………………….243 10.0 Learning Objectives…………………………………………………...…………...243 10.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………243 10.2 Cross-Cultural Communication…………………………………………………..243 10.3 Cultural Intelligence………………………………………………..……………...245 10.3.1 Basic Components of Cultural Intelligence………......……………………….245 10.4. Effective Communication in Multi-Cultural Settings………….………………...246 10.5 Diversity and Inclusion……………………………………………………………..247 10.6 Conclusion………………………...………………………………………………..249 Review Questions………………………………………………………………………...249 ix  C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I Case Study: Ethnocentrism…………………………………………………….…………251 References………………………………………………………..………………………..252 CHAPTER 11……………………………………………………..……………………...253 MODERN COMMUNICATION TOOLS FOR VIRTUAL MEETINGS……...……………253 11.0 Learning Objectives………………………………………………………………...253 11.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….………………253 11. 2 Role of Technology……………….………………………………………………..253 11.3 Virtual Meeting………………………………………………………….…………..254 11.4 Tools for Virtual Meeting…………………………………………………………...254 11.4.1 Rationale for Choosing Virtual Meeting Tools…….…………………………...256 11.5 Benefits of Virtual Meeting…………………………………………………………256 11.6 Shortcomings of Virtual Meeting……..…………………………………………...256 11.7 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..257 Review Questions…………………………………..……………………………………..257 Reference/Further Reading……………………………………………………………….258 CHAPTER 12……………………………………………….…………………………….259 COMMUNICATION VIA SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORM………………...……………….259 12.0 Learning Objectives………………………………………………………………...259 12.1 Introduction…………………………………….……………………………………259 12.2 What is Social Media?................................................................................ 259 12.3 Social Media Etiquette……………………………………………………………...260 12.4 Team Work………………………………………………………………….……….261 12.5 Team Building and Rapport………………………………………………………..261 12.6 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..262 Review Questions……………………………………….....……………………………..263 Case Study: Remote Team working……………...……………………………………...264 References/Further Reading…………………………………………….………………..265 CHAPTER 13……………………………………….…………………………………….266 NATURE OF MANAGEMENT………………………………….…………………………266 13.0 Learning Objectives………………………………………………………………...266 13.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….……266 13.2 Management Orientation………………….………………………………………266 13.3 Management Principles…………………………………………..………………..267 13.4 Management Behaviour………………………………..………………………….269 13.5 Management Process…………………………..…………………………………..269 x C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 13.6 Management Activities……………………………………………………..……...270 13.7 Management Role………………………….……………………………………...270 13.8 Management Tasks……………………………….....…………………………….270 13.9 Organisational Process……………………….…………………………………...270 13.10 Conclusion……………………………………...…………………………………271 Review Questions………………………………………………………………………...271 Case Study………………………………………………………………………………..272 References/Further Reading………………………..…………………………………...273 CHAPTER 14…………………………………………………………………………….274 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT………………………………………………...…………...274 14.0 Learning Objectives……………………………………..………………………...274 14.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………274 14.2 Conflict in Organisation…………………………….…………………………….274 14.3 Types of Conflict……………………………………………………………………275 14.4 Causes of Conflict………………………………………..………………………..276 14.5 Strategies for Handling Conflict……………………………….………………….277 14.6 Role of Communication in Conflict Management………………...…………….278 14.7 Conclusion………………………………………………….………………………279 Review Questions………………………………………………………………………...279 Case Study………………………………………………………………………………..281 References/Further Reading…………………………………..………………………...281 CHAPTER 15…………………………………………………………………………….282 MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT………………………………..………………………282 15.0 Learning Objectives……………………………..…………………………….......282 15.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………282 15.2 Concept of Development in Organisational Setting…………………..………..282 15.3 How to Equip Employees for Advancement……………………………………..283 15.4 Training and Learning…………………………………………..…………………284 15.5 Succession Planning………………………………..……………………………...285 15.6 Leadership…………………………………………………………………………..286 15.7 Conclusion…………………………………………………...……………………..288 Review Questions………………………………………………………………………...288 Case Study………………………………………………………………………………..290 References/Further Reading……………………….............…………………………...291 xi C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 1.0. Learning Objectives From the moment an individual develops the ability to speak and write legibly up to the period of death, communication remains an indispensable element in his life. The same is applicable to every organisation within the human society. At the end of this chapter, candidates should be able to: a. Define communication and state its components; b. List the various media of communication; c. Explain clearly the barriers to communication; d. Distinguish between interpersonal and intrapersonal communication; e. Explain the importance of communication; f. Identify different patterns of communication; and g. State the advantages and disadvantages of one pattern of communication over another. 1.1. Introduction In any environment where human beings are compelled to interact, communication is very important. Indeed, human interaction is hardly possible without communication. Communication is vital for peaceful co-existence. The ability to communicate is an essential attribute of every human being. We must recognize that communication is not restricted to human beings alone. It is an indispensable feature of business organisations, government, and nations. In this chapter, we shall discuss the meaning of communication, its process, media barriers, interpersonal, and intrapersonal communication. We shall also dwell on the patterns of communication. 1.2. Meaning and Process of Communication Can you imagine a society where nobody talks or expresses their views? Is it possible to have a society where there is neither verbal nor written expression? Such a society does not exist, and it would indeed be challenging for people to interact if such a society ever came into being. This is because people will always require information. Questions naturally arise in expectation of answers, indicating an exchange of information. In simpler terms, communication is the transfer of ideas or information from one person or group to another to achieve the intended purpose. Communication occurs when an 1 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I individual sends or conveys information, such as ideas, views, feelings, concrete points, or messages, to another person who receives the information and provides feedback. Communication helps shape our perception of others, situations, and events. In essence, the information received during the communication process allows individuals to form opinions or mental images of what is being presented. Communication is usually viewed as a two-way process involving at least four components as illustrated below; Figure 1 Departmental Level Sender Message Channel Receiver From the above, we may now define communication as the process of transfer of information from a sender to a receiver who must show signs that the information has been received and understood or misunderstood (feedback). Communication must be purposeful, with clear objectives and goals. Nevertheless, the ultimate aim of communication is to establish and enhance mutual understanding and relationships within society, at home, and within organisations. The true value of communication becomes evident when the listener or reader comprehends what is being conveyed. Communication should not lead to misunderstandings or the omission of essential information. Simply talking, babbling, or producing incoherent or discordant vocal sounds does not constitute effective communication 1.3. Media of Communication Primarily for the purpose of this course, we shall be restricted to three media of communication. Although some writers contend that several media of communication exist, these media are subsumed in the three media to be discussed in this course. The three principal media of communication are oral, written and electronic. Although not generally listed as part of the media of communication, some communication experts recognize non-verbal communication. We shall return to it later in the course since it is necessary to highlight its features. 2  C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 1.3.1. Oral Communication Oral communication refers to the production of vocal sounds to which meanings are ascribed in the form of words. Simply put, it is a speech act. Oral communication occurs when a speaker uses verbal expressions to indicate an intention, a message, feelings or ideas. Forms of oral communication are evident in dialogue, telephone conversation, lectures, seminars, preaching, and interviews. It is usually referred to as face-to-face communication. When there is a meeting (formal or informal), oral communication usually takes place. What are its advantages and disadvantages? Advantages 1. There is immediate feedback (response) hence it possible to determine whether the message (information) has been understood or misunderstood. 2. For confidential purposes, oral communication is ideal. 3. It enhances interpersonal relationship and understanding because of the personal contact involved. 4. The presence of facial expressions, physical gestures and use of intonation enhances the ability of the parties involved to achieve better understanding. 5. On the spot errors or misunderstanding can be detected and corrected. In essence, agreement can be reached regarding what is actually meant. Disadvantages 1. Oral communication is easily deniable since there is no record. For this reason, it is not reliable for the continuity of operations in business organisations. 2. It is easily interrupted by distractions which may be social, technical or psychological. 3. It is not suitable for the presentation of messages that are either lengthy or very technical in nature. 4. It may be abused when used wrongly to intimidate others. 5. Any part of the contents of oral communication may be forgotten, misrepresented or distorted. 1.3.2. Written Communication Once information or message has been committed to writing, it becomes a form of written communication. Written communication is recognized as any form of document which bears specific and understandable information. Written communication is in 3 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I various forms and the prominent ones are letters, reports, memos, circulars, notices, pamphlets, magazines and newspapers. The list is endless. Let us consider the advantages and disadvantages. Advantages 1. Written records can be retrieved for reference purposes when required now or in future. This provides the benefit of continuity. 2. Written records are not deniable. They can be easily used as evidence. 3. The reader or user of written information has the opportunity to read through at a later time for deeper understanding. This is not immediately possible in a situation of oral communication. 4. It is best used for the presentation of technical and complex information. Graphs, data, drawings and other illustrative figures are better presented through written communication. Disadvantages 1. A level of literacy is required to be able to use written communication effectively. This makes it a disadvantage to those who are illiterate since they can be exploited. 2. Written communication is slow when compared to oral communication, and for this reason, it is not particularly ideal for emergency situations. 3. It can be used as evidence against another party. 4. Items of written communication (letters and other documents) may get into wrong hands just as they can be lost in transit. 5. Items of written communication can also be willfully destroyed. 1.3.3. Electronic Media of Communication Since communication is an inevitable feature of every human society, efforts have been made to simplify its process as well as enhance the quality of information (messages). The advancement in modern technology tends to have contributed to the facilitation of communication. Consequently, the use of devices such as the telephone, television, radio, computer system and other forms of electronic gadgets has resulted in what is now commonly referred to as electronic media of communication (telecommunication). Communication by means of electronic media helps people to exchange information across vast distances in less time. 4 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I What are the benefits of electronic media of communication? We briefly highlight the following, but they are not exhaustive. Find out more. Advantages 1. It eliminates the geographical distance which was, before now, considered as a barrier to communication. 2. It is fast, efficient and time-saving. 3. It provides the opportunity to record, save and retrieve information at any given time. 4. It is useful for the conversion of information into the desired form and format. Disadvantages 1. There is absence of face-to-face interaction. Face to face interaction gives individuals the opportunity of interpreting facial expressions and using body gestures to reinforce understanding. But, these are absent when electronic media are engaged. 2. It is also difficult to assess the immediate reaction of the receivers of information when this medium is used unlike what happens when the oral medium is used. 3. It is a disadvantage to the illiterate who cannot understand the codes required to manipulate electronic gadgets. 1.3.4. Non-Verbal Communication Non-verbal communication refers to the use of symbols and gestures in the communication process. When human beings speak, they use hands to demonstrate. They also exhibit some facial expressions which may suggest satisfaction, dissatisfaction, anger, or other moods. These are gestures which provide clues to meanings in the communication process. These gestures are frequently used when we communicate orally. The movement of hands, snapping of fingers, nodding, and body posture and shaking of the head are all examples of features of non-verbal communication. Facial expressions are used mostly in communicating emotions and attitudes such as affection, friendliness, dislike, suspicion, anxiety and contempt. 5 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I Advantages 1. Gestures are useful in a noisy environment. 2. In a situation where two individuals do not speak a common language, and in the absence of an interpreter, non-verbal communication can be used as aid. 3. In speech presentation situations, gestures help to strengthen the speaker’s views as well as reinforce understanding. 4. It reduces the barrier that exists when deaf and dumb people try to communicate. In such a situation, non-verbal communication is an immediate option. 5. It can be consciously used to draw attention particularly in an emergency situation. Disadvantages 1. Like oral communication, non-verbal communication is not consciously recorded for any future reference. It cannot be used as legal evidence against anyone. It is also deniable. 2. Non-verbal communication may be wrongly interpreted. For example, not everybody can conveniently communicate with the deaf and dumb. Most people do not understand the signs used by the deaf and the dumb. 3. Facial expressions and gestures may express a different message from what is intended by the individual displaying them. 1.4. Importance of Communication Communication plays different roles in any organisation. In fact, it is an indispensable tool in the hands of managers or directors in an organisation. No business or corporate organisation can survive without effective communication. Therefore, it is pertinent at this juncture to discuss the importance of communication. i. Projection of Company’s Image One of the major roles of communication is to project the image of an organisation. This is why any organisation striving towards achieving its goals must have a viable public relations department. This department is saddled with the responsibility of dealing with both internal and external communication. When a company or any business organisation has a good image, there must be positive and desirable effects. 6 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I ii. Proper Co-Ordination For the purpose of proper co-ordination of organisational activities, there is need for effective communication. Through effective communication, the management finds it easy to co-ordinate the activities of the staff. Monitoring, supervision and directing, which are the essential components of management, can also be achieved through effective communication. iii. Smooth Running The smooth running of an organisation is achieved through effective communication. Effective communication brings about a peaceful atmosphere which enhances absolute productivity. Workers work under the same umbrella if there is mutual relationship among them. iv. Conflict Resolution Communication is used for resolving conflicts in an organisation. It should be noted that conflict, which may be internal or external, personal or interpersonal, cannot be avoided in any organisation. However, with effective communication, conflicts can be resolved amicably. When there is conflict resolution, counter-productivity will be eliminated completely. v. Entertainment Communication is employed to entertain people. Human beings naturally appreciate entertainment especially when there are social gatherings or functions. Non-verbal communication can also be used for the purpose of entertainment. A typical example is the use of cartoons for the purpose of satirizing society. Jokes and funny plays can be organized for the purpose of amusing people. It should be noted that all these can be organized to promote cordial relationship between the management and workers. vi. Goodwill Goodwill messages can be sent to people in an organisation. These messages promote understandings and enhance productivity. They are signs of love and friendship. Without effective communication, all these cannot be achieved. For example, congratulatory messages can be sent to people. It is also necessary to send condolence messages to bereaved people. All these messages promote great understanding and mutual relationship. 7 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I vii. Information One of the major aims of communication is to inform people. Through effective communication, the workers in an organisation are informed about the development of their working environments. The goals of the organisation are explained to the staff. This explanation is achieved through communication. In this way, every worker works towards achieving the set goals. 1.5. Barriers to Effective Communication Barriers can be described as those factors that lead to lack of effective communication or those that are capable of dislocating the communication process. Barriers to effective communication are analyzed below: Noise: Noise can simply be described as competing external and internal stimuli that hamper the process of communication. It is whatever that is capable of affecting the quality of the message transmitted in a negative way. Noise can also reduce the quality of the message sent. There are different types of noise. For example, the sound produced by a car horn or sudden knock on a door is physical noise. There is psychological noise when the receiver of a message (either written or oral) is not emotionally stable. At this stage, let us explain the types of noise we have: Physical Noise: This is the type of noise that occurs as a result of a competing sound. It may be a sound produced by a car engine outside a lecture room or an unexpected laughter which is capable of disturbing the process of communication. If people are shouting in the process of listening or reading any material, assimilation cannot be achieved. Psychological Noise: This occurs when the receiver of a message is not emotionally stable. For example, a depressed individual cannot listen or read effectively. It is difficult for a woman whose child is ill to receive any information successfully. This is because of her absent-mindedness. Physiological Noise: This has to do with the condition of the body. All the organs of the body have some physiological or biological functions they perform. If any part of the 8 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I body is not stable, an individual cannot be comfortable. For example, it will be extremely difficult for an individual grappling with the problem of general body pain to listen or read effectively. If somebody also has a headache, he cannot receive information (either oral or written) effectively. Semantic Noise: Semantic noise occurs when the sender of a message does not use appropriate words or lexical items for his message. Communication must be meaningful. In fact, the purpose of communication is meaningfulness. The choice of words in a communication encounter must be exact. For example, when we talk about company’s vehicles, the sender of the message may need to be exact by differentiating the vehicles. He may refer to trucks, operation vehicles, buses, tractors, tankers, etc. Communication should be concrete and exact. Ambiguity should also be avoided. Syntactic (Grammatical) Noise: This type of noise occurs as a result of the employment of faulty structures. If the sender of a message does not have competence in the language of communication, the intended meaning may be eroded. For example, the use of double tense maker in the following sentence is wrong. “What did he told you?” Bad grammar also hampers the flow of communication. Phonological Noise: This is concerned with pronunciation. For oral communication to be successful, the sender must have the ability to pronounce words correctly. At least, his speech must be intelligible. This explains why a speaker needs to undergo auditory or acoustic training. A good speaker should try as much as possible to eliminate some elements of linguistic interference. Prejudice: One of the barriers to effective communication is bias or prejudice. Communication cannot be successful if the receiver of information has sentimental or subjective feelings towards a particular concept or the sentiment becloud reason. They erode objectivity and obscure facts. They are also capable of distorting the whole information. You should note that when all these happen, the original purpose of communication is absolutely defeated. Preconception: It is possible in certain situations for a listener or reader to harbor some rigid beliefs in his mind. When this happens, the listener will misinterpret the information transmitted. For example, the listener may have preconceived beliefs about the speaker 9  C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I based on their initial impression and may not be inclined to listen attentively. Such situations can hinder the smooth flow of information. Perception: Individual differences lead to varying perceptions, and people may perceive things differently. When someone holds a mistaken perception of a concept, it can lead to the automatic misinterpretation of the transmitted message. Additionally, one's perception of a particular concept often depends on personal experiences, judgment, and environmental factors. As a result, differing perceptions can contribute to a lack of understanding or distortion in communication. Stereotyping: This refers to a situation where people are viewed according to some fixed patterns or permanent behavioural patterns. For example, there is a belief (in certain quarters) that elders do not lie, if one holds tenaciously to this belief, one may not have a critical evaluation of what one is reading or listening to. It is also a belief in some communities that the people who are advanced in age are nosy and calculating. Perspective: The process of communication is affected by our outlook and disposition to life. Some people are naturally pessimistic, while others are optimistic. Our natural disposition to life affects the way we receive information. For example, a pessimistic worker can never believe that workers’ conditions of service can be improved even when there is genuine information concerning the workers’ welfare. The way we talk about certain phenomena and the way we receive information are dependent on our disposition to life. Abstraction: The process of receiving a message requires a great deal of mental activities from the receiver. The receiver’s task is to draw inferences or relevant conclusions from the message received. A reader needs to sieve information by ignoring the pieces of information that are not relevant to his focus. For example, if you ask a group of people to narrate an event they witnessed, each of them will have different views and conclusions. Where there are different views, the listener can sift only the required information. Human Relations: The hierarchical structure of an organisation could obstruct the flow of communication. This is because, in any organisation, there is what we call status difference. Workers naturally withhold information from the management because there is always conflict of interests. 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I Technical Barrier: The equipment used to aid communication might be a source of problem. This happens when there is no adequate preparation for transmission of information. It may also result from the use of inappropriate media, information overload and improper timing among others. 1.6. Choice of Appropriate Communication Medium Before communication can be effective or meaningful, an appropriate medium must be employed. For instance, communication with market women often relies on direct contact rather than the use of the Internet. Therefore, the choice of oral communication in this situation is inevitable. At this juncture, we will examine certain factors that influence the choice of communication media. These factors are analyzed below: Cost: The sender of any message should consider the expenses to be incurred when transmitting information through a particular medium. He should consider whether the medium is expensive or not. For example, oral communication is generally cheaper than written communication. If the communication is oral, the sender has to consider whether the transmission of message is going to be face-to-face or through an electronic media. Nature of the Message: The sender has to consider whether the message is simple or complex. The information may be open or confidential. If the information is not meant for general consumption, the sender may send it through the receiver’s e-mail address or put personal calls through to the people concerned. The management may decide to hold a general meeting with the staff to pass certain pieces of information. The issue here is that it is the nature of the message that dictates the means or medium of transmitting it. Distance: The distance between the sender and the receiver must also be considered. For example, a manager can easily summon his subordinates for briefing and instruction, but this channel may not be chosen if the communication is interdepartmental. In inter-departmental communication, memos or circulars can be sent to the appropriate quarters. If information is intended for the general public, such as a notice for the annual general meeting, it can be disseminated through electronic or print media to ensure that a wide audience, particularly the stakeholders, becomes aware of it. 11 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I Urgency of the Message: An urgent message cannot be delayed because there is need for immediate feedback. Therefore, the medium that can facilitate quick transmission of the message must be chosen. Sending such a message might warrant using the internet or telephone. In military or para-military settings, signals (radio messages) are sent immediately for the purpose of getting an immediate feedback. Security, Safety and Confidentiality: There is need in every organisation to keep information from falling into wrong hands. There are certain secrets or confidential information which must not be exposed to all workers. For example, if the management of an organisation wants to take a decision on a particular issue, only the management staff are informed. The information is confidential. It has also been established that written information is more secure than oral communication, though the former might have its own short falls too. Therefore, any information that requires secrecy and confidentiality should be handled carefully so that there will be no leakage. The Level of the Receiver: The workers in an organisation belong to different categories. There are skilled and unskilled labourers. There are also professionals and non-professionals. Some workers are highly educated and sophisticated while others are stark illiterates. The sender of any information should consider the level of exposure of the receiver. For example, a non-professional or an uneducated worker will find it difficult to understand certain jargons. The sender should consider how to structure the message and the choice of the appropriate medium. There are some uneducated workers who find it difficult to interpret the information contained in a memo. The sender may therefore decide to use both oral and written communication. Availability of other Media: There is need to consider the availability of other media. This is because it is the task of the sender to choose the best out of the options available to him. Storage: There are some messages that require storage for future reference. The sender should consider the possibility of having easy access to such information in future. Written messages can be stored either in a hard or soft copy. Modern day technology has also made it easy to store oral communication. It may be recorded for future reference. For example, it is possible to store information in media houses in order to retrieve it in future. 12 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I Therefore, storage of information is possible in both oral and written forms of communication. The Environment: Another factor that should be considered by the sender of information is the environment of the receiver. He should be able to determine whether the environment is open or secluded. For example, if the receiver is in a noisy or porous environment, oral communication through the telephone may not produce any desired result. The sender may decide to use written communication or even send signals as a form of non-verbal communication. Evidence of Delivery: Most of the time, when information is sent from an organisation to individual or outside organisations, there is need for proof that the message has been delivered. This comes in form of feedback to the sender. Therefore, the sender needs to document the timing of the message delivery. The particulars of the receivers are also documented for future reference. 1.7. Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Communication 1.7.1. Interpersonal Communication We have already seen that communication is a two-way process involving two parties. In order to make the process more effective and cordial, the sender of information attempts to draw the other party (receiver or listener) nearer by using simple and understandable words. He also has to show concern for the interest of the other party. In essence, interpersonal communication involves merely two persons such that expressions are used to drive the establishment of a personal relationship. But how we perceive others and the situations around us play a major role in the communication process. Communication becomes effective when an individual is able to convince the other party. Interpersonal communication generally embodies perception, expectations, cordial atmosphere and the exchange of information between two individuals which may drive at establishing mutual understanding. Interpersonal communication is reinforced by non-verbal signs such as facial expressions, head nodding, head shaking, head swinging, body posture, gazing, staring, arm display, finger display and other types of gesture. Interpersonal communication highlights one’s ability to influence another person by attempting to establish rapport in order to make him understand one’s opinion, point of 13 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I view, insight, interest or proposition. It is also a way of trying to understand another person’s point of view and not only that of the speaker. 1.7.2. Intrapersonal Communication When the concept of ‘communication’ is mentioned, the traditional view held is that of a process which involves only two parties who exchange information. However, there is modification as we have seen in the case of interpersonal communication. Before we examine the concept of intrapersonal communication, let us ask ourselves some questions. Can one have a conversation with oneself? Can only one individual act as both the sender and receiver of information? Is it possible for just one individual to constitute all the components of the communication process? Well, the answer to each of the questions is obviously affirmative. It is simply very possible. When an individual thinks, meditates or argues in his mind and at the same time provides a conclusion or course of action, he is simply involved in intrapersonal communication. The process of intrapersonal communication involves only one individual. No other party is involved. It only requires the individual’s mental capacity, visioning power and thought process. It can therefore be said that the individual is talking to himself. He may vocalize his thoughts or do it silently. For personal study, self-appraisal and self-planning purposes, intrapersonal communication is usually unconsciously engaged. However, it is not devoid of some of the non-verbal cues discussed above. 1.8. Communication Networks We have already indicated that communication is the transfer of information from one source (sender/originator) to a receiver (destination) who is expected to provide a feedback (response). However, the process assumes different patterns or dimensions or shapes. Therefore, there are regular arrangements of the communication elements in an orderly manner so that a meaning of some sort may be deduced. A communication network refers to the specific pattern in which communication moves within an organisation. It refers to how information is transmitted within a channel. In any organisation, information flows in different directions where vertical and horizontal channels are used. For example, it is possible for information to move from an individual to many people at the same time. It may also move from one person to another until it finally goes to the last person. Information moves in diverse ways and directions. For this reason, it may be distorted, especially when it is informal and in the oral form. 14 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I What is important in dealing with patterns of communication is that there is opportunity for people to be reached with information within a particular location, provided someone lets out the information. Understanding the movement patterns of information helps us to direct very sensitive information to the appropriate destination or expected users. Apart from the formal channels, grapevine communication and rumour mongering follow some patterns. In an informal channel, information can also move from one person to another until it reaches several people. It may be passed from one person to a group of people until it is spread to many people uncontrollably. All these movements are known as patterns of communication. At this juncture, let us look at some ways in which communication moves in an organisation. 1.8.1. The Fan or Wheel Network The fan or wheel network describes the transmission of information from a single source to several destinations (receivers). It is used when many receivers simultaneously have access to the same information at the same time. This means that communication is targeted at many people or groups. This is the network employed when the chairman of an organisation addresses many people at the same time, especially in the annual general meeting (AGM). It is also used in the classroom or church setting. This network reduces the possibility of having distortion since information gets to the target audience at the same time. Immediate and appropriate feedback can also be obtained from the audience. Advantages of Using the Fan Network Feedback: One of the major advantages of using this network is that it enhances the possibility of obtaining immediate and direct feedback. This is because there is direct contact or relationship between the sender and the receiver. Lack of Distortion: When the fan network is used, the possibility of distortion which is inevitable when information has to go through different stages is reduced to the barest minimum. This is because information is received by many people simultaneously. Cost: There is reduction in the cost of sending messages or passing information as individuals are contacted at the same time. There is no need sending messages separately to individuals. Doing this will definitely involve much money. 15 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I Centralized Control: Whenever this network is used, the control of information is centralized. There are no intermediaries who may distort information: for some personal reasons or selfish interest. The message transmitted comes from only one source. The source represents a certified point. Speed: Information moves without any firm of inhibition when the fan or wheel network is used. This is possible because the mode of disseminating information is not cumbersome unlike a situation where information has to follow a bureaucratic process. Efficiency: Information transmitted through the network is usually efficient. Efficiency is achieved because there is proper co-ordination since the information transmitted comes from only one source. It is also possible for the sender to monitor his information for the purpose of effectiveness. Disadvantages of Using the Fan Network Lack of Decentralization: In any organisation, for the purpose of proper co- ordination and the spirit of team work, departmental heads, unit heads, etc. are given responsibilities. This is why there is division of labour. But when the fan network is employed for the purpose of communication, the task of sending messages is concentrated on the source (sender) alone. Level of Audience: It is true that information can reach all the receivers at the same time, but we need to consider the fact that all the receivers have different linguistic capabilities. A large organisation is a complex or heterogeneous community which is a conglomeration of different people. Therefore, these people receive information differently and act differently. Some receivers are well educated, while others are not. The fan or wheel network does not take all these variables into consideration. 1.8.2. The Single Strand or Chain Network This network is employed when information is passed from one person to another. In this situation, information is passed from one person until it finally gets to the final stage or point. 16 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I Advantages of Using the Single Strand Network Sense of Belonging: In an organisation where information can move from one person to another, every worker believes that he/she is important or relevant in the scheme of things. They are therefore naturally motivated to transmit information that they are “privileged” to get to other people. Co-operation: This network is capable of creating an enabling environment for workers in order to work in harmony. This is because there is good rapport among them. All workers relate freely with one another. In this way, they co-operate and work as a team. Smooth Running: This network can pave way for the smooth running of an organisation. Although information moves from one person to another, it is still possible for the management to monitor its movement. This monitoring leads to proper co- ordination. Disadvantages of Using the Single Strand Network Delay: The movement of information transmitted is delayed unnecessarily. Messages are delayed because they have to follow a number of stages. They move from one individual to another until they get to their final stage. Lack of Instant Feedback: When the message transmitted is delayed because of its slow movement, we should not expect immediate or quick feedback from the receiver. This is because information does not get to the receiver quickly. Distribution: When information is handed down from one person to another within an organisation, there is room for distortion. Information can be embellished, reduced or doctored for selfish interest or some unidentified personal reasons. Lack of Control: When there is no centralization of information dissemination, it will be pretty difficult for the management to control the movement of such information. This is because there are multiple sources of information. 17 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 1.8.3. The All Channels Network This represents a situation in which communication moves from any direction in an organisation. Communication moves freely without any obstacle. This network shows the organisational structure on organogram because the management or superior officer can communicate freely with the junior staff without going through the complex process involved in vertical communication. One of the major advantages of this network is that it gives the opportunity of getting immediate feedback. There is a kind of reciprocal communication since communication flows freely. Exchange of ideas is also possible because there is no fear of intimidation. The workers are also motivated because they know that they have freedom of speech and can express their feelings easily. There is also equality among participants. The morale of the staff is also very high because they have a sense of belonging. However, some problems may creep in when using this network. Rowdiness in the process of communication might set in because there is no direction; information moves freely. Control of information might also be problematic because the management may find it difficult to monitor information movement. 1.8.4. The Large Loop or Circle Network In this network, information moves in a cyclic form. Here, the message transmitted by the sender goes from one individual to another until it finally returns to the original source. 1.8.5. Small Loop Network This is the network that allows the sender to get in touch with each receiver who may be a person or a group of persons. The receiver may also be a department or unit. The sender does this until all the relevant people in the organisation have been reached. The major disadvantage here is that feedback can be obtained directly from each receiver or group of receivers. The process of sending the feedback is accelerated because there is direct contact. However, the process of transmitting information seems to be cumbersome since the sender has to go from one receiver to another. 1.9. Communication Flow in Informal Communication It has already been mentioned here that informal communication also moves in certain directions. These directions will be explained here. 18 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 1.9.1 Cluster Pattern Workers in an organisation belong to different groups or blocks. They are loyal to their different groups. Therefore, grapevine information may move from one group to another. It is also possible for one person to belong to several groups to which he or she may pass rumour or grapevine information. The information then spreads in clusters because each recipient spreads it to the members of a group until every member is informed. 1.9.2. Probability Pattern This network is based on the possibility that the sender of a message might pass information to a group of people who will in turn disseminate the information to many people. This situation is a pointer to the fact that informal communication is fast and uncontrollable. This pattern of communication is very loose and it is also a means of spreading baseless and fallacious information which may have adverse effect on the organisation. 1.9.3. Gossip Pattern This pattern involves story telling or tale bearing. An individual (originator) disseminates information to anyone who is interested or cares to listen. He does this because of the satisfaction he derives from being an originator and relevant worker in an organisation. 1.10. Conclusion We have attempted to give insight into the meaning, definition and process of communication. Communication is a two-way process which involves the sender, channel, message, receiver and feedback. Communication is vital for the peaceful existence, progress and development of every human society. Communication can only be effective when feedback is inherently clear. Similarly, we have observed the medial of communication to be oral, written and electronic as generally acknowledged even though there could be other media, not universally accepted. People need to express themselves whether as a group or individuals. In modern societies, communication is so vital that it determines the attainment of objectives, peaceful co-existence, harmony and development of the human society. Without effective communication, conflicts will be very difficult to resolve. People need information from time to time, particularly for decision making, and such information can only be accessed through the process of communication. As a result, 19 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I communication has become an inevitable tool in the society, homes, and corporate organisations. Communication is not restricted to individuals; it is a phenomenon in business organisations. This introduces the view of patterns of communication, examples of which are noted as horizontal and vertical communication. Furthermore, interpersonal communication relates the exposition of feelings, thoughts and points of view on one to one basis. In the case of intrapersonal communication, an individual constitutes the entire process of communication. Review Questions 1. Explain the process of communication and highlight its ultimate goal. 2. Distinguish clearly the elements that constitute media of communication. 3. Discuss any five barriers to communication. 4. Account for the importance of communication. 5. Distinguish between interpersonal and intrapersonal communication. 6. Which of the communication patterns do you think is more effective and why? Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) 1. Which of the following is the technical term for barrier? A. Semantics B. Overload C. Noise D. Inconvenience 2. Which of the following is not synonymous with ‘feedback’? A. Response B. Reply C. Answer D. Cue 3. Communication is a ……… process. A. three-media B. pictorial C. two-way D. non-dynamic 20  C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 4. Oral communication is ……… A. non-convertible. B. convertible. C. rigid. D. blabbing. 5. All the following are features of written communication except… A. grapevine. B. notice. C. telegram. D. journal. 6. All the following are to be taken into consideration before selecting a medium of communication except …. A. confidentiality. B. message. C. cost. D. emotion of the receiver. 7. When an individual nods his head to a suggestion, this is perceived to be a feature of …. A. disagreement. B. environmental communication. C. non-verbal communication. D. unintentional acceptance. 8. Affection is most effectively shown by means of …….. communication. A. oral B. none of the above C. written D. logical 21 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 9. Which of the following is NOT identified with communication? A. Purpose B. Reaction C. Vacuum D. Feelings 10. Identify what happens to a story when it is repeatedly narrated by people. It becomes A. important. B. distorted. C. reinforced. D. news. Answers to (MCQ) 1 C 6 D 2 D 7 C 3 C 8 A 4 B 9 C 5 A 10 B Case Study Mr. Agbeloba, a big-time cashew farmer in South West Nigeria with clients in the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria, decided to exit his cashew farming business and relocate to Australia. Notwithstanding the fact that he had some active contracts with his clients, he decided to make a full-page advertisement in a nationally read newspaper in Nigeria, informing his numerous clients of his relocation. He stated that they should contact him on or before a date mentioned in the advertisement to ensure that they do not lose out on the contract terms. One of the legally acceptable means of passing critical information to his clients is a national newspaper. He chose this option because some months prior to that time, he had a massive fire incident that destroyed most of his properties, including all his hard copies of his documents and the contracts were not stored electronically 22 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I Based on the case above, attempt the following questions with justification 1. Has Mr. Agbeloba effectively communicated to his numerous clients? 2. Will the advertisement be deemed to have reached the target audience? 3. What alternative advice will you give Mr. Agbeloba? References/Further Reading Effective Communication Skills. www.e-booksdirectory.com Gideon, B.A. (2016).Perception Theory of Communication. Jos: Landmark Publications Hargie, O. (ed.) (2019) The Handbook of Communication Skills 4th Ed. London, Routledge Jacobson, E. (2016). English for Professionals. New Delhi: Vatsa HL Publishers Maina, S. M. (2017) Communication Skills Michigan, Independent Publishers ISBN- 13:978-1973194804 23 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I CHAPTER 2 ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION AND ENGAGEMENT PROCESS 2.0 Learning Objectives In every corporate organisation, modes of communication are discernible. For the purpose of harmony and attainment of organisational objectives, mission and vision, communication lines within the organisation are devised accordingly. At the end of this chapter, candidates should be able to: a) Highlight the formal channels of communication within an organisation; b) Identify the channels of informal communication within an organisation; and c) Relate the factors that are responsible for the choice and use of informal channels of communication within an organisation. 2.1. Introduction Communication is an indispensable tool in every organisation. In business transactions, communication is needed for the purpose of interaction, negotiation and signing contracts. The ultimate goal of most business organisations is to make profits. Business transactions can only flourish where there is harmony and great understanding. This is achieved when communication is effective. In this chapter, we shall concentrate on studying organisational communication channels. In any form of organisation, there are two major systems of communication. These are: formal and informal communication systems. These systems will be fully analyzed here. 2.2. Formal Communication Channels The formal channels of communication are the channels officially recognized within an organisation. They are designed for information exchange within the organisational set- up. Since they are officially recognized, there are clear-cut guidelines and laid down procedures on how to communicate as well as the line of communication to follow. In other words, there are already specified lines of communication which recognize the hierarchical structure of the organisation. The following are the formal channels: a. The downward channel; b. The upward channel; c. The horizontal channel; d. The quasi-vertical channel; e. The diagonal channel. 24 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 2.3. Line Management Before attempting to analyze the above channels, it is necessary to explain the term “line management”. It is a term that is relevant in vertical communication. It refers to the type of communication which allows information to flow from one level to another. It may be from the upper cadre (management level) to the lower cadre or from the workers to the management. Line management involves a situation whereby one rank is clearly seen below another to which it is directly related. In any organisation, whether small or large, there is what we call “hierarchy” or “hierarchical structure”. This structure is naturally expected as every organisation is usually departmentalized (divided into different departments or sections). For instance, heads of department usually relate with directors because they are directly responsible to them. The directors are also directly responsible to the management. In order to understand the communication flow in an organisation, it is necessary to study the organisational chart (organogram), which spells out the lines of authority and responsibility. It is equally necessary to know, within an organisation, whom one is responsible to and who is responsible to one. In essence, the organisational chart describes the process of communication in an organisation. The task of preparing an organisational chart enables every unit (departments) to be brought under review. As a prelude to this task, every single employee should have a detailed job description showing the summary, the job contents and the job requirements in terms of skills and communication. In the process of preparing an organisational chart, it should be noted that an employee is not accountable to more than one superior, and the superior officer should have full responsibilities for those under him. Below is an example of organisational chart: Managing Director Human Production Finance Resource Technical Manager Director Manager Director Factory Human Engineering Resource and Department Administration Dept. 25 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 2.4. Downward Communication Channel In every organisation, information moves in several directions as dictated by members. Communication refers to how information flows in an organisation. The downward communication channel involves sending information from the top to the bottom. It allows information to flow from a superior officer to the subordinates. This is to say that information is transmitted from the higher cadre to the lower cadre. In this type of communication channel, there is strict adherence to the organisational structure. This means that the hierarchical arrangement of an organisation is taken cognizance of. Advantages I. Quick actions are taken since downward communication often comes in form of instructions ii. Good and immediate feedback iii. Close monitoring of instructions is possible since the message comes from a superior officer iv. Smooth Operations: Co-ordination and effective administration are easily achieved. Disadvantages I. Distortion: Information sent may be distorted especially if it is sent from the management to junior workers. Misinterpretation and misconception usually occur. ii. Bureaucracy: Information may be subjected to unnecessary or avoidable complexities, due to the organisational structure of a company. There may be unnecessary delay. iii. Downward Communication often promotes authoritarianism because the workers have little or no contribution. They just “act on instructions”. iv. Disharmony: Since the workers are not given the chance of airing their views, they naturally “revolt” internally and, at times, take actions that are inimical to the development of the company. 2.5. Upward Communication As the title suggests, the upward communication channel flows from the bottom to the upper level. Workers use this channel to communicate with the management or their superior officers. Information, therefore, flows from the personnel at the lowest level to those at the top. For example, information may be transmitted from the subordinate staff to heads of departments or managers of a company. 26 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I The major difference between this type of communication flow and the former type (downward channel) is that it eliminates authoritarianism. It exists in a participative, free and democratic office environment. Upward communication usually comes in form of offering suggestions, making appeals, channeling grievances, sending complaints to the management, group meetings, response to queries, etc. Advantages i. Co-operation from the junior workers: Workers naturally co-operate with the management to achieve the corporate goals of the organisation since they do not stand aloof in the administration structure. ii. Industrial Harmony: Internal disputes or unnecessary conflicts are checked because the workers feel at home in the organisation. It should be noted, however, that absolute prevention of conflicts is not achievable iii. Getting Correct Feedback: Workers find it easy to give their candid opinions about some important issues affecting the company Disadvantages i. Fear: Fear of molestation and victimization may come from the management or the superior officer. Junior workers, most of the time, are afraid of airing their views on important issues affecting the organisation because they often feel that they can be victimized ii. Ignorance: This is another obstacle that is capable of hampering effective communication. There are some workers who are not even aware of the fact that they can communicate with the management. iii. Another issue is management’s interest: In some cases, the management does not welcome suggestions from the subordinate staff because of conflict of interest. 2.6. Horizontal Communication This channel of communication neither moves upward nor downward; rather, it remains in the same circle consisting of individuals or workers of the same status. This is to say that information flows laterally, that is people at the same or similar levels exchange information. For example, information may flow from the finance director to the director of personnel. The means of communication here include: memos, letters, the telephone, meetings involving the members of the same category or cadre, etc. 27 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I Advantages i. Uninhibited Flow of Information: There is no much delay since information flows freely. ii. No Fear of Intimidation: since information flows from officers of the same status, there is any fear of intimidation or victimization which often occurs in case of upward communication. iii. Smooth Running of Organisation: Smooth running of the organisation is achieved since members of the same group often find it naturally easy to discuss issues affecting their organisation as a whole. iv. Conflict Prevention and Conflict Resolution: These can be achieved because members of a group can easily talk over matters and reach a consensus. Disputes and unnecessary conflicts can, therefore, be minimized or prevented in some cases. v. Feedback: Immediate feedback can be achieved because there is free movement of communication. vi. Team Work: Horizontal communication facilitates team work among co-ordinate officer. Disadvantages I. Unhealthy Rivalry: If horizontal communication is not properly handled, it can lead to empire building. Since each department may be working towards outshining other departments, if care is not taken, they may not like to relate with one another. ii. Information Distortion: Distortion of information is possible since horizontal communication usually depends on the use of words of mouth (discussions, dialogues, conversations, or telephone messages). Information may be denied or misinterpreted. The appropriate feedback may not be achieved. iii. Lack of Co-operation: Problems of understanding and lack ofco-operation may surface as a result of the use of technical language. Each department, it must be noted, has its own jargon that is associated with it. These special registers may not be understood by others who do not belong to the department. iv. Lack of Commitment: Lack of commitment or seriousness may occur simply because the individuals exchanging information are of the same status. Members may not take immediate actions on vital issues since they feel they are not accountable to the sender of the message. 28 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 2.7. Quasi-Vertical Communication This is the channel of communication by which workers have direct link with the management through the organized body of the staff association. The labour union formed by the workers can have negotiation with the board of governors or top management, thereby forming a kind of “triangular” communication process. Information can be transmitted from the subordinate staff through the labour union to the top management or superior staff or vice versa. Most of the time, information flows from the bottom to the top because the information usually transmitted is based on request or demand for a more meaningful welfare package for the staff or improved conditions of service. Unlike vertical (upward and downward) communication, information can move either ways. The top management relates directly with the workers through their union leaders. Advantages i. Dialogue: It tends to promote dialogue and mutual rapport among labour union, management and subordinate staff. ii. Mutual Engagement: Meeting for the resolution of demands by the labour union shows that both labour union and management are partners advancing the goals of the organisation. iii. Representative Communication: To create order, key representatives of management and top officers of labour union share information and data before reaching joint agreement on pressing issues. Such agreement is reported to other members outside the meeting. Disadvantages i. Exploitation: Labour union may explore the quasi-vertical channel to make undue demands on management and therefore abuse it. ii. Skewed Attention: Senior managers tend to give attention to communication with labour union than to the staff collectively. Emphasis is therefore more on flow of information between top management and labour to the neglect of the entire staff. iii. Assumed Disharmony: If there is neither cordial relationship nor peace among members of the labour union, quasi-vertical communication may not be effective to advance the collective interest of all employees. 29  C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S, M A N AG E M E N T & D E V E LO P M E N T I N T E R M E D I AT E I 2.8 Diagonal Communication This is the channel that does not follow the hierarchical structure of an organisation. It shows the structural or traditional arrangement in line communication. In essence, there is a breach in the process of line communication. This type of communication usually occurs between people who are neither in the same department nor on the same level of hierarchy (unlike horizontal communication). Information flows from any direction. It is possible to have both downward and upward channels. Information moves without any form of inhibition. Managers must communicate downward, upward, horizontally and diagonally. When all the channels are effectively employed within an organisation, there will be effective communication. Advantages of Diagonal Communication i. Efficiency: Diagonal communication facilitates efficiency. This is because every worker believes that he has the opportunity of expressing his views about certain issues. ii. Sense of Belonging: All the workers feel that they are important and relevant in the day- to-day activities of the organisations. iii. Harmony: The workers have harmonious relationship since they believe that they can express their feelings without fear of victimization. iv. Coordination: The diagonal channel enhances coordination of organisational activities. This is possible because information can easily be obtained from workers. v. Immediate Feedback: The management can obtain accelerated feedback from the staff. Since there is no obstruction in the communication process, the feedback is easy to obtain. vi. Accomplishment of Organisational Goals: When there is free flow of information, every worker in an organisation is enthusiastic towards achieving the set goals. In other words, positive development can be achieved. Disadvantages of Diagonal Communication i. Lack of Discipline: This type of communication brings a