Communication and Culture PDF

When you speak or listen, you're doing so as a member of a particular and unique culture--- you're greatly influenced by the teachings of your religion, your racial and national history, the social expectations for your gender, and a host of other factors. This chapter explores this topic of culture...

When you speak or listen, you're doing so as a member of a particular and unique culture--- you're greatly influenced by the teachings of your religion, your racial and national history, the social expectations for your gender, and a host of other factors. This chapter explores this topic of culture and its relationship to human communication. As mentioned in the previous chapter, culture permeates all of communication. Here we look at the nature of culture (and answer the question, "What is culture?"), explain some major cultural differences, and look at intercultural communication and how we might improve it. 2.1 What is Culture? Culture consists of (1) relatively specialized elements of the lifestyle of a group of people (2) that are passed on from one generation to the next through commu nication, not through genes. 1. Included in a social group's "culture" is everything that members of that group have produced and developed---their values, beliefs, artifacts, and language; their ways of behaving and ways of thinking; their art, laws, religion, and, of course, communication theories, styles, and attitudes. 2. Culture is passed on from one generation to the next through communication, not through genes. Thus, the term culture does not refer to color of skin or shape of eyes, as these are passed on through genes, not communication. But because members of a particular race or country are often taught similar beliefs, attitudes, and values, it's possible to speak of "Hispanic culture" or "African American culture." It's important to realize, however, that within any large group---especially a group based on race or nationality---there will be enormous differences. The Kansas farmer and the Wall Street executive may both be, say, German American, but may differ widely in their attitudes, beliefs, and lifestyles. In some ways the Kansas farmer may be closer in attitudes and values to a Chinese farmer than to the New York financier. An interesting perspective on culture can be gained by looking at some of the popular metaphors for cul ture; seven of these are identified in Table 2.1. Sex and Gender In ordinary conversation sex and gender are often used synonymously. In academic discussions of culture, they're more often distinguished. Sex refers to the Seven MeTAPhoRS of CulTuRe Here are seven metaphors of culture; taken together they provide other ways of looking at the nature of culture. These insights are taken from a variety of sources, including Hall (1976), Hofstede, Hofstede, and Minkov (2010), and the website of Culture at Work and Culturally Teaching: Education across Cultures. Metaphor Metaphor's Claim/Assumption Salad/jelly beans like items in a salad or bag of jelly beans, cultures are individual; yet, they work together with other cultures to produce an even better combination. Iceberg like the iceberg, only a small part of culture is visible; most of culture and its influences are hidden from easy inspection. Tree like the tree, you only see the trunk, branches, and leaves but the root system, which gives the tree its structure and function, is hidden from view. Melting pot Cultures blend into one amalgam and lose their individuality. but the blend is better than any one of the ingredients. Software Culture dictates what we do and don't do much as does a software program. out of awareness, people are programmed, to some extent, to think and behave by their culture. Organism Culture, like an organism, uses the environment (other cultures) to grow but maintains boundaries so its uniqueness is not destroyed. Mosaic like a mosaic is made up of pieces of different shapes, sizes, and colors, so is culture; the whole, the combination, is more beautiful than any individual piece. Table 2.1 ChAPTeR 2 CulturE and CommuniCation 47 biological and physiological qualities that character ize men and women; sex is determined by genes, by biology. Gender, on the other hand, refers to the socially constructed roles and behaviors that society deems appropriate for males and females. Gender is learned from society; it's the attitudes, beliefs, values, and ways of communicating that boys and girls learn as they grow up. Thus, gender---although partly transmitted geneti cally and not by communication---may be considered a cultural variable, largely because cultures teach boys and girls different attitudes, beliefs, values, and ways of behaving. Thus, you act like a man or a woman in part because of what your culture has taught you about how men and women should act. This is not, of course, to deny that biological differ ences also play a role in the differences between male and female behavior. In fact, research continues to uncover biological roots of male/ female differences we once thought were entirely learned (Helgeson, 2009; McCroskey, 1998). The Transmission of Culture Culture is transmitted from one generation to another through enculturation, the process by which you learn the culture into which you're born (your native culture). Parents, peer groups, schools, religious insti tutions, and government agencies are the main teach ers of culture. A somewhat different process of learning culture is acculturation, the process by which you learn the rules and norms of a culture different from your native culture. In acculturation, your original or native culture is modified through direct contact with or exposure to a new and different "host" culture. For example, when immigrants settle in the United States (the host culture), their own culture becomes influ enced by U.S. culture. Gradually, the values, ways of behaving, and beliefs of the host culture become more and more a part of the immigrants' culture, a process known as assimilation; the immigrant assimilates into the dominant culture's values, beliefs, and lan guage, for example. At the same time, of course, the host culture changes, too, as it interacts with the immigrants' cul ture. Generally, however, the culture of the immigrant changes more. The reasons for this are that the host country's members far outnumber the immigrant group and that the media are largely dominated by and reflect the values and customs of the host culture (Kim, 1988). New citizens' acceptance of the new culture depends on many factors. Immigrants who come from cultures similar to the host culture will become acculturated more easily. Similarly, those who are younger and better educated become acculturated more quickly than do older and less well-educated people. Personality factors also play a part. Persons who are risk takers and open-minded, for example, Understanding theory and research Cultural Theories Consider two very different theories of culture: cul tural evolution and cultural relativism. the theory of cultural evolution (often called social Darwinism) holds that much as the human species evolved from lower life forms to homo sapiens, cultures also evolve. Consequently, some cultures may be considered advanced and others primitive. most contemporary scholars reject this view because the judgments that distinguish one culture from another have no basis in science and are instead based on individual values and preferences as to what constitutes "advanced" and what constitutes "primitive." the cultural relativism approach, on the other hand, holds that all cultures are different but that no culture is either superior or inferior to any other (berry, poortinga, segall, & Dasen, 1992). this view is generally accepted today and guides the infusion of cultural materials into contemporary textbooks on all academic levels (jandt, 2004). but this position does not imply that all cultural practices are therefore equal or that you have to accept all cultural practices equally. as noted in the text, there are many cultural practices popular throughout the world that you may find, quite logically and reasonably, unacceptable. Working with Theories and Research Explore these two positions more fully by consulting one or more of the references cited in this chapter or by logging on to your favorite search engine or database and searching for such concepts as "cultural relativism," "cultural evolution," and "social Darwinism." What might you add to the brief discussion presented here? PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication economic interdependency 48 have greater acculturation potential. Also, persons who are familiar with the host culture before immi gration---through interpersonal contact or through media exposure---will be acculturated more readily than those who lack this familiarity. The Importance of Culture in Communication There are many reasons for the current cultural em phasis in the field of communication: (1) demographic changes, (2) increased sensitivity to cultural differ ences, (3) economic interdependency, (4) advances in communication technology, (5) the renewed con cern for politeness, and (6) the fact that communica tion competence is specific to a culture (what works in one culture will not necessarily work in another). It's impossible to communicate effectively with out being aware of how culture influences human communication. Demographic Changes Most obvious, perhaps, are the vast demographic changes taking place throughout the United States. Whereas at one time the United States was largely a country populated by northern Europeans, it's now a country greatly influenced by the enormous number of new citizens from Central and South America, Africa, and Asia. And the same is true to an even greater extent on college and university cam puses throughout the United States. With these changes have come different customs and the need to understand and adapt to new ways of looking at communication. Cultural sensitivity As a people, we've become increasingly sensitive to cultural differences. American society has moved from an assimilationist perspective (which holds that people should leave their native culture behind and adapt to their new culture) to a perspective that values cultural diversity (which holds that peo ple should retain their native cultural ways). And, with some notable exceptions---hate speech, racism, sexism, homophobia, and classism come quickly to mind---we're more concerned with communicating respectfully and, ultimately, with developing a society where all cultures can coexist and enrich one another. At the same time, the ability to interact effectively with members of other cultures often translates into financial gain and increased employment opportuni ties and advancement prospects. Today most countries are economically dependent on one another. Consequently, our economic lives depend on our ability to communicate effectively across cultures. Similarly, our political well-being depends in great part on that of other cultures. Political unrest in any part of the world---the Far East, eastern Europe, or the Middle East, to take a few examples---affects our security in the United States. As a result of this interrelatedness among nations and peoples, often referred to as a "spaghetti bowl," business opportunities have an increasingly intercul tural dimension. All this makes cultural awareness and intercultural communication competence essen tial skills for professional survival and success. Communication technology The rapid spread of communication technology has brought foreign and sometimes very different cul tures right into our living rooms. News from foreign countries is commonplace. You see nightly---in high definition---what is going on in remote countries. Technology has made intercultural communication easy, practical, and inevitable. Daily the media bom bard you with evidence of racial tensions, religious disagreements, sexual bias, and all the other prob lems caused when intercultural communication fails. And, of course, the Internet has made intercultural communication as easy as writing a note on your computer. You now communicate by e-mail just as easily with someone in Europe or Asia as with some one down the street, and you make friends with people on Facebook from countries you never even knew existed. politeness There can be little doubt that part of the emphasis on culture is because of the renewed emphasis on politeness. Politeness is probably universal across all cultures (Brown & Levinson, 1987), so we don't really have polite cultures on the one hand and im polite cultures on the other. Nevertheless, cultures differ widely in how they define politeness and in how important politeness is in comparison with, say, open ness or honesty. For example, not interrupting, saying "please" and "thank you," maintaining focused eye contact, and asking permission to do something are all examples of politeness messages, but their impor tance differs from one culture to another. Cultures also differ in their rules for expressing politeness or impoliteness. Some cultures, for example, may require you to give extended praise when meeting, say, an important scientist or educator; other cultures ChAPTeR 2 CulturE and CommuniCation 49 expect you to assume a more equal position regardless of the stature of the other person. The varied forms of polite greetings provide excellent examples of the differ ent ways cultures signal politeness, cleverly captured in the title of one guide to inter cultural communication, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands: How to do Business in Sixty Countries (Morrison & Conaway, 2006). Chinese and Japanese will greet you with bows. In Chile, Honduras, and many other Latin coun tries women may pat each other on the arm or shoulder. In the Czech Republic men may kiss a woman's hand. In many Latin and Mediterranean cultures the po lite greeting is to hug---a type of greeting that is gaining in popularity throughout the United States. And in many cultures the proper greeting is the handshake, but even this varies. For example, in the United States and Canada, the handshake is firm and short (lasting about 3 to 4 seconds), but it's soft (resembling a handclasp) and long (lasting about 10 to 12 seconds) in Indonesia. For more on the handshake, see Table 7.3, on page 180. There also are large gender differences (as well as similarities) in the expression of politeness (Helgeson, 2009; Holmes, 1995). Generally, studies from several different cultures show that women use more polite expressions than men (Brown, 1980; Holmes, 1995; Wetzel, 1988). Both in informal con versation and in conflict situations, women tend to seek areas of agreement more than do men (Holmes, 1995). There are also similarities. For example, both men and women in the United States and New Zealand seem to pay compliments in similar ways (Holmes, 1986, 1995; Manes & Wolfson, 1981), and both men and women use politeness strategies when communicating bad news in an organization (Lee, 1993). CommuniCaTion ChoiCe PoinT Culture VerSuS Culture You've been invited to dinner, along with several other students, at a faculty member's house. You follow strict religious dietary laws, and so you would likely not eat anything and perhaps embarrass your host. if you do attend, what are some of the things you might say about your eating rules? if you decide to refuse, how might you do so politely? advise participants to avoid dealing with business until everyone has socialized sufficiently and feels well acquainted enough to begin negotiations. Each prin ciple seems effective within its own culture and inef fective outside its own culture. For example, Asians often find that the values they have learned---values that discourage competitiveness and assertiveness--- work against them in Western cultures that endorse competition and outspokenness (Cho, 2000). The Aim of a Cultural Perspective Communication Competence Communication competence is specific to a given cul ture; what proves effective in one culture may be inef fective in another. For example, in the United States corporate executives get down to business during the first several minutes of a meeting. In Japan, however, business executives interact socially for an extended period and try to find out something about one an other. Thus, the communication principle influenced by U.S. culture would advise participants to get down to the meeting's agenda during the first five minutes. The principle influenced by Japanese culture would Because culture permeates all forms of communica tion, it's necessary to understand its influences if you're to understand how communication works and master its skills. As illustrated throughout this text, culture influences communications of all types. It influences what you say to yourself and how you talk with friends, lovers, and family in everyday conversa tion. It influences how you interact in groups and how much importance you place on the group versus the individual. It influences the topics you talk about and the strategies you use in the workplace and in communicating information or in persuasion. And it influences how you use the media and the credibility you attribute to them. Success in communication--- on your job and in your social life---will depend on your ability to communicate effectively with persons who are culturally different from yourself. PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication 50 As demonstrated throughout this text, cultural differences exist across the communication spec trum---from the way you use eye contact to the way you develop or dissolve a relationship (Chang & Holt, 1996). But these should not blind you to the great number of similarities that also exist among even the most widely separated cultures. Close interper sonal relationships, for example, are common in all cultures, though they may be entered into for very different reasons by members of different cultures. Further, when reading about cultural differences, remember that these are usually matters of degree. Thus, most cultures value honesty, but not all value it to the same degree. An emphasis on cultural awareness does not im ply that you should accept all cultural practices or that all cultural practices are equal (Hatfield & Rapson, 1996). For example, cockfighting, fox hunting, and bullfighting are parts of the culture of some Latin American countries, England, and Spain, but you need not find these activities accept able or equal to cultural practices in which animals are treated kindly. Further, a cultural emphasis does not imply that you have to accept or follow even the practices of your own culture. For example, even if the majority in your culture finds cockfighting acceptable, you need not agree with or follow the practice. Similarly, you can reject your culture's values and beliefs; its religion or political system; or its attitudes toward people who are homeless, handicapped, or culturally different. Of course, go ing against your culture's traditions and values is often very difficult. But it's important to realize that although culture influences you, it does not de termine your values or behavior. Often, for example, personality factors (such as your degree of assertive ness, extroversion, or optimism) will prove more influential than culture. Expanding MEdia LitEracy Media Imperialism Political imperialism is a policy of expanding the dominion of one country over that of another. Cultural imperialism refers to a similar process; the expansion of dominion by one culture over another. media imperialism is a subdivision of political and cul tural imperialism and refers to the domination of one culture's media over those of other cultures. Generally, the media from developed countries such as the united States dominate the media from developing countries. this media dominance is also seen in online commu nication, in which the united States and the English language dominate. media products from the unites States are likely to emphasize its dominant attitudes and values: for example, the preference for competition, the importance of individu ality, the advantages of capitalism and democracy, safe sex, and health consciousness, and the importance of money. through this media dominance, the attitudes and values of the dominant u.S. media will become the atti tudes and values of the rest of the world. television programs, films, and music from the united States and Western Europe are so popular and so in de mand in developing countries that they may actually inhibit the growth of native cultures' own talent. So, for example, instead of expressing their own vision in an original televi sion drama or film, native writers in developing countries may find it easier and more secure to work as translators for products from more developed countries. and native promoters may find it easier and more lucrative to sell, say, u.S. music than to cultivate and promote native talent. the fact that it is cheaper to import and translate than it is to create original works gives the developed country's products an added advantage and the native culture's productions a decided disadvantage. the popularity of u.S. and Western European media may also lead artists in developing countries to imitate. For example, media artists and producers may imitate films and television programs from the untied States rather than develop their own styles, styles more consis tent with their native culture. although the term imperialism is a negative one, the actual process of media influence may be viewed as nega tive or positive, depending on your cultural perspectives. Some people might argue that the media products from the u.S. are generally superior to those produced else where and so serve as a kind of benchmark and standard for quality work throughout the world. also, it might be argued that such products introduce new trends and perspectives and hence enrich the native culture. much as people in the united States profit from the influence of new cultural strains, the developing cul tures profit when u.S. media introduce, for example, new perspectives on government and politics, foods, educa tional technologies, and health 2.2 Cultural DifferenCes ChAPTeR 2 CulturE and CommuniCation 51 For effective communication to take place in a global world, goodwill and good intentions are helpful---but they are not enough. If you're going to be effective, you need to know how cultures differ and how these dif ferences influence communication. Research supports several major cultural distinctions that have an impact on communication: (1) individualist or collectivist ori entation, (2) emphasis on context (whether high or low), (3) power structure, (4) masculinity--femininity, (5) tolerance for ambiguity, (6) long- and short-term orientation, and (7) indulgence and restraint. Each of these dimensions of difference has significant impact on all forms of communication (Gudykunst, 1994; Hall & Hall, 1987; Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). Following the major researchers in this area, these differences are discussed in terms of countries, even though in many cases different nations have very similar cultures (and so we often speak of Hispanic culture, which would include a variety of countries). In other cases, the same country includes varied cultures (for example, Hong Kong, although a part of China, is considered separately because it has a somewhat dif ferent culture) (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). Before reading about these dimensions, consider the statements below; they will help personalize the text discussion and make it more meaningful. For each of the items below, select either a or b. In some cases, you may feel that neither a nor b describes yourself accurately; in these cases simply select the one that is closer to your feeling. As you'll see when you read this next section, these are not either/or pref erences, but more-or-less preferences. 1. Success, to my way of thinking, is better measured by a. the extent to which I surpass others. b. my contribution to the group effort. 2. My heroes are generally a. people who stand out from the crowd. b. team players. 3. If I were a manager, I would likely a. reprimand a worker in public if the occasion warranted. b. always reprimand in private regardless of the situation. 4. In communicating, it's generally more important to be a. polite rather than accurate or direct. b. accurate and direct rather than polite. 5. As a student (and if I feel well informed), I feel a. comfortable challenging a professor. b. uncomfortable challenging a professor. 6. In choosing a life partner or even close friends, I feel more comfortable a. with just about anyone, not necessarily one from my own culture and class. b. with those from my own culture and class. 7. In a conflict situation, I'd be more likely to a. confront conflicts directly and seek to win. b. confront conflicts with the aim of compromise. 8. If I were a manager of an organization I would stress a. competition and aggressiveness. b. worker satisfaction. 9. As a student, I'm more comfortable with assignments in which a. there is freedom for interpretation. b. there are clearly defined instructions. 10. Generally, when approaching an undertaking with which I've had no experience, I feel a. comfortable. b. uncomfortable. 11. Generally, a. I save money for the future. b. I spend what I have. 12. My general belief about child-rearing is that a. children should be cared for by their mothers. b. children can be cared for by others. 13. For the most part, a. I believe I'm in control of my own life. b. I believe my life is largely determined by forces out of my control. 14. In general, a. I have leisure time to do what I find fun. b. I have little leisure time. Items 1--2 refer to the individualist--collectivist orientation; a responses indicate an individualist orientation, and b responses indicate a collectivist orientation. Items 3--4 refer to the high- and low-context characteristics; a responses indicate a high-context focus, and b responses indicate a low-context focus. Items 5--6 refer to the power distance dimension; a responses indicate greater comfort with a low power distance, and b responses indicate comfort with a high power distance. Items 7--8 refer to the masculine--feminine dimension; a responses indicate a masculine orientation; b responses, a feminine orientation. Items 9--10 refer to the tolerance for ambiguity or uncertainty; a responses indicate high toler ance, and b responses indicate a low tolerance. PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication 52 Items 11--12 refers to the long- or short-term orientation; a responses indicate long-term ori entation, and b responses indicate short-term orientation. Items 13--14 refer to indulgent and restraint orientation; a responses indicate indulgent, and b responses indicate restraint cultures. Understanding your preferences in a wide variety of situations as culturally influenced (at least in part) is a first step to controlling them and to changing them should you wish to do so. This understanding also helps you modify your behavior as appropriate for greater effectiveness in certain situations. The remaining discussion in this section further explains these orientations and their implications. Individual and Collective Orientation Cultures differ in the way in which they promote individualist and collectivist thinking and behav ing (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010; Singh & Pereira, 2005). An individualist culture teaches members the importance of individual values such as power, achievement, hedonism, and stimulation. Examples include the cultures of the United States, Australia, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Canada, New Zealand, Italy, Belgium, Denmark, and Sweden. A collectivist culture, on the other hand, teaches members the importance of group values such as benevolence, tradition, and conformity. Examples of such cultures include Guatemala, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Indonesia, Pakistan, China, Costa Rica, and Peru. One of the major differences between these two ori entations is the extent to which an individual's goals or the group's goals are given greater importance. Of course, these goals are not mutually exclusive---you probably have both individualist and collectivist ten dencies. For example, you may compete with other members of your basketball team for the most baskets or most valuable player award (and thus emphasize individual goals). At the same time, however, you will--- in a game---act in a way that will benefit the entire team (and thus emphasize group goals). In actual practice, both individual and collective tendencies will help you and your team each achieve your goals. Yet most peo ple and most cultures have a dominant orientation. In an individualist culture members are responsible for themselves and perhaps their immediate family. In a collectivist culture members are responsible for the entire group. In some instances these tendencies may come into conflict. For example, do you shoot for the basket and try to raise your own individual score, or do you pass the ball to another player who is better positioned to score and thus benefit your team? You make this distinction in popular talk when you call someone a team player (collectivist orientation) or an individual player (individualist orientation). Success, in an individualist culture, is measured by the extent to which you surpass other members of your group; you take pride in standing out from the crowd. And your heroes---in the media, for example--- are likely to be those who are unique and who stand apart. In a collectivist culture success is measured by your contribution to the achievements of the group as a whole; you take pride in your similarity to other members of your group. Your heroes are more likely to be team players who don't stand out from the rest of the group's members. Distinctions between in-group members and out group members are extremely important in collectivist cultures. In individualistic cultures, which prize each person's individuality, the distinction is likely to be less important. In fact, closely related to individualism and collectivism is universalism and exclusionism (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). A universalist culture (highly correlated with individualism) is one in which people are treated as individuals, rather than in terms of the groups (racial, sexual, national, for example) to which they belong. A universalist orienta tion teaches a respect for other cultures, other beliefs, and other ways of doing things. An exclusionist orien tation (highly correlated with collectivism) fosters a strong in-group affiliation with much less respect for out-group members. Special privileges are reserved for in-group members while indifference, impoliteness, and, in some cases, even hostility are directed at mem bers of other cultures. High- and Low-Context Cultures Cultures also differ in the extent to which informa tion is made explicit, on the one hand, or is assumed to be in the context or in the persons communicat ing, on the other. In a high-context culture much of the information in communication is in the context or in the person---for example, information that was shared through previous communications, through assumptions about each other, and through shared experiences. The information is thus known by all participants, but it is not explicitly stated in the ver bal message. In a low-context culture most of the information is explicitly stated in the verbal message. In formal transactions it will be stated in written (or contract) form. High-context cultures are also collectivist cultures (Gudykunst & Kim, 1992; Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey, & ChAPTeR 2 CulturE and CommuniCation 53 Chua, 1988). These cultures (Japanese, Arabic, Latin American, Thai, Korean, Apache, and Mexican are examples) place great emphasis on personal relation ships and oral agreements (Victor, 1992). Low-context cultures are also individualist cultures. These cultures (German, Swedish, Norwegian, and American are examples) place less emphasis on personal relation ships and more emphasis on verbalized, explicit expla nation---for example, on written contracts in business transactions. A frequent source of intercultural misunderstand ing that can be traced to the distinction between and low-context cultures is seen in face-saving (Hall & Hall, 1987). People in high-context cultures place a great deal more emphasis on face-saving, on avoiding one's own or another's possible embarrassment. For example, they're more likely to avoid argument for fear of causing others to lose face, whereas people in low-context cultures (with their individualist orien tation) will use argument to win a point. Similarly, in high-context cultures criticism should take place only in private. Low-context cultures may not make this public--private distinction. Low-context managers who criticize high-context workers in public will find that their criticism causes interpersonal problems--- and does little to resolve the difficulty that led to the criticism in the first place (Victor, 1992). Members of high-context cultures are reluctant to say no for fear of offending and causing the person to lose face. So, for example, it's necessary to understand when the Japanese executive's yes means yes and when it means no. The difference is not in the words used but in the way in which they're used. It's easy to see how the low-context individual may interpret this reluctance to be direct---to say no when you mean no---as a weakness or as an unwillingness to confront reality. Power Distances In some cultures power is concentrated in the hands of a few, and there's a great difference between the power held by these people and the power of the ordinary citizen. These are called high-power-distance cul tures (Malaysia, Slovakia, Guatemala, Panama, the Philippines, Russia, Romania, Serbia, Suriname, and Mexico are the top 10) (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010; Singh & Pereira, 2005. In low-power-distance cultures power is more evenly distributed throughout the citizenry (Austria, Israel, Denmark, New Zealand, Switzerland, Ireland, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Great Britain are the top ten) (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010; Singh & Pereira, 2005). In a list of 76 countries, the United States ranks 59th (58 nations are higher in power distance). These differences af fect communication in numerous ways. For example, CommuniCaTion ChoiCe PoinT GiVinG direCtionS in HiGH- and loW ConteXt SituationS To further appreciate the distinction between high and low context, consider giving directions to some specific place on campus (for example, "Where's the cafeteria?") to someone who knows the campus and who you can assume knows the local landmarks (which would resemble a high-context situation) and to a newcomer to your campus who you cannot assume is familiar with campus landmarks (which would resemble a low-context situation). What are some of your choices for giving directions in the two different cases? in high-power-distance cultures there's a great power distance between students and teachers; students are expected to be modest, polite, and totally respect ful. In low-power-distance cultures (and you can see this clearly in U.S. college classrooms) students are expected to demonstrate their knowledge and com mand of the subject matter, participate in discussions with the teacher, and even challenge the teacher--- something many high-power-distance culture mem bers wouldn't even think of doing. Friendship and dating relationships also will be influenced by the power distance between groups (Andersen, 1991). In India, for example, such rela tionships are expected to take place within your cul tural class. In Sweden a person is expected to select friends and romantic partners not on the basis of class or culture but on the basis of such individual factors as personality, appearance, and the like. PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication 54 In low-power-distance cultures you're expected to confront a friend, partner, or supervisor assertively; there is in these cultures a general feeling of equality that is consistent with assertive behavior (Borden, 1991). In high-power-distance cultures, direct con frontation and assertiveness may be viewed nega tively, especially if directed at a superior. Masculine and Feminine Cultures Especially important for self-concept is the culture's attitude about gender roles; that is, about how a man or woman should act. In fact, a popular classifica tion of cultures is in terms of their masculinity and femininity (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). When denoting cultural orientations, the terms mas culine and feminine should not be interpreted as per petuating stereotypes but as reflecting some of the commonly held assumptions of a sizable number of people throughout the world. Some intercultural theorists note that equivalent terms would be achieve ment and nurturance, but because research is con ducted under the terms masculine and feminine and because these are the terms you'd use to search the electronic databases, we use these terms here (Lustig & Koester, 2013). A highly masculine culture values aggressiveness, material success, and strength. A highly feminine culture values modesty, concern for relationships and the quality of life, and tenderness. The 10 coun tries with the highest masculinity score are (begin ning with the highest) Japan, Austria, Venezuela, Italy, Switzerland, Mexico, Ireland, Jamaica, Great Britain, and Germany. The 10 countries with the highest femininity score are (beginning with the highest) Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark, Costa Rica, Yugoslavia, Finland, Chile, Portugal, and Thailand. Of the 53 countries ranked, the United States ranks 15th most masculine (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). Masculine cultures emphasize success and so socialize their members to be assertive, ambitious, and competitive. For example, members of mascu line cultures are more likely to confront conflicts directly and to fight out any differences competi tively; they're more likely to emphasize conflict strategies that enable them to win and ensure that the other side loses (win--lose strategies). Feminine cultures emphasize the quality of life and so so cialize their members to be modest and to high light close interpersonal relationships. Feminine cultures, for example, are more likely to utilize compromise and negotiation in resolving conflicts; they're more likely to seek solutions in which both sides win (win--win strategies). Similarly, organizations can be viewed as mascu line or feminine. Masculine organizations emphasize competitiveness and aggressiveness. They stress the bottom line and reward their workers on the basis of their contributions to the organization. Feminine organizations are less competitive and less aggressive. They emphasize worker satisfaction and reward their workers on the basis of the needs of workers. High- and Low-Ambiguity-Tolerant Cultures Levels of ambiguity tolerance vary widely among cultures. In some cultures people do little to avoid uncertainty, and they have little anxiety about not knowing what will happen next. In some other cul tures, however, uncertainty is strongly avoided and there is much anxiety about uncertainty. high-ambiguity-tolerant Cultures Members of high-ambiguity-tolerant cultures don't feel threatened by unknown situations; uncertainty is a normal part of life, and people accept it as it comes. The 10 countries with highest tolerance for ambigu ity are Singapore, Jamaica, Denmark, Sweden, Hong Kong, Ireland, Great Britain, Malaysia, India, and the Philippines; the United States ranks 11th. Because high-ambiguity-tolerant cultures are comfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty, they minimize the importance of rules governing com munication and relationships (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010; Lustig & Koester, 2013). People in these cultures readily tolerate individuals who don't follow the same rules as the cultural majority and may even encourage different approaches and perspectives. Students from high-ambiguity-tolerant cultures appreciate freedom in education and prefer vague assignments without specific timetables. These stu dents want to be rewarded for creativity and readily accept an instructor's lack of knowledge. low-ambiguity-tolerant Cultures Members of low-ambiguity-tolerant cultures do much to avoid uncertainty and have a great deal of anxiety about not knowing what will happen next; they see uncertainty as threatening and as something that must be counteracted. The 10 countries with the lowest tolerance for ambiguity are Greece, Portugal, Guatemala, Uruguay, Belgium, Malta, Russia, El Salvador, Poland, and Japan (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). Low-ambiguity-tolerant cultures create very clear-cut rules for communication that must not be broken. For ChAPTeR 2 CulturE and CommuniCation 55 example, students from strong-uncertainty-avoidance cultures prefer highly structured experiences with little ambiguity; they prefer specific objectives, detailed in structions, and definite timetables. An assignment to write a term paper on "anything" would be cause for alarm; it would not be clear or specific enough. These students expect to be judged on the basis of the right answers and expect the instructor to have all the an swers all the time (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). Long- and Short-Term Orientation Another interesting distinction is that between long- and short-term orientation. Some cultures teach a long-term orientation, an orientation that pro motes the importance of future rewards, and so, for example, members of these cultures are more apt to save for the future and to prepare for the future academically (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). The most long-term-oriented countries are South Korea, Taiwan, Japan, China, Ukraine, Germany, Estonia, Belgium, Lithuania, and Russia. The United States ranks 69th out of 93 countries, making it less long-term than most countries. In long-term cultures, marriage is a practical arrangement rather than one based on sexual or emotional arousal, and living with extended family (for example, in-laws) is common and considered quite normal. Members of these cultures believe that mothers should be home with their children, that humility is a virtue for both men and women, and that old age should be a happy time of life. Cultures fostering a short-term orientation (Puerto Rico, Ghana, Egypt, Trinidad, Nigeria, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Iran, Morocco, and Zimbabwe are the top 10) look more to the past and Table 2.2 vAlueS of The WoRkPlACe the present. Instead of saving for the future, members of this culture spend their resources for the present and, not surprisingly, want quick results from their efforts. These cultures believe and teach that marriage is a moral arrangement, living with in-laws causes problems, children do not have to be cared for by their mothers (others can do that), humility is a virtue only for women (not men), and old age is an unpleasant time of life. These cultures also differ in their view of the work place. Organizations in long-term-oriented cultures look to profits in the future. Managers or owners and workers in such cultures share the same val ues and work together to achieve a common good. Organizations in short-term-oriented cultures, on the other hand, look to more immediate rewards. Managers and workers are very different in their thinking and in their attitudes about work. Even in educational outlook there are significant differences. Students in long-term cultures will at tribute their success or failure in school to their own efforts while students in short-term cultures will at tribute their success or failure to luck or chance. Another perspective on this difference is offered by a study that asked Asian (long-term cultures) and American (short-term culture) executives to rank order those values they considered most important in the workplace. The top six responses are presented in Table 2.2 and show a dramatic difference between the two cultural groups. Indulgence and Restraint Cultures also differ in their emphasis on indul gence or restraint (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). Cultures high in indulgence are those that This table presents the six highest-ranked values (beginning with the highest-ranked value) by Asian and American executives (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). Notice that "hard work" makes both lists but in very different positions. values Selected by Asian (long-Term orientation) executives values Selected by American (Short-Term orientation) executives hard work respect for learning honesty openness to new ideas accountability self-reliance freedom of expression personal freedom self-reliance individual rights hard work personal achievement PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication 56 emphasize the gratification of desires; they focus on having fun and enjoying life. Venezuela, Mexico, Puerto Rico, El Salvador, Nigeria, Colombia, Trinidad, Sweden, New Zealand, and Ghana are the top 10 in indulgence; the United States ranks 15th out of 93 countries, making it considerably more indulgent than most countries. These cultures have more people who are happy, which depends on two major factors: Life control. This is the feeling that you may do as you please (at least to a significant degree), that you have freedom of choice to do or not do what you want. Leisure. This is the feeling that you have leisure time to do what you find fun. In addition, members of indulgent cultures have more positive attitudes and greater optimism and are more likely to remember positive emotions. They also have a more satisfying family life and loose gender roles (for example, household tasks are shared by both partners). Cultures high in restraint (Pakistan, Egypt, Latvia, Ukraine, Albania, Belarus, Lithuania, Bulgaria, Estonia, and Iraq are the top 10), on the other hand, are those that foster the curbing of such gratifica tion and its regulation by social norms. Restraint cultures have more people who are unhappy: people who see themselves as lacking control of their own lives and with little or no leisure time to engage in fun activities. In contrast to indulgent cultures, members of cultures high in restraint are more cyni cal, pessimistic, and less likely to remember positive emotions. They have less satisfying family lives, rigid gender roles, and an unequal distribution of house hold tasks. As you might expect, indulgent cultures do not place great value on thrift; instead the value is on spending to gratify one's needs. Restrained cultures place a great value on thrift. Also predict able is the finding that indulgent cultures place great importance on friendship and having lots of friends whereas restrained cultures place less importance on friendships. Although there are no studies offering evidence, it's likely that the Facebook pages of indulgent culture members will have a lot more friends than will those of mem bers of restrained cultures. And, not so predict ably perhaps, is the finding that death rates from cardiovascular diseases are significantly higher in restrained than in indulgent cultures and signifi cantly more indulgent culture members describe their health as "very good" (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). e 2.3 interCultural CommuniCation Regardless of your own cultural background, you will surely come into close contact with people from a variety of other cultures---people who speak differ ent languages, eat different foods, practice different religions, and approach work and relationships in very different ways. It doesn't matter whether you're a longtime resident of a country or a newly arrived immigrant: You are or you soon will be living, going to school, working, and forming relationships with people who are from very different cultures. Here we look first at the nature and forms of intercultural communication and second at guidelines for improv ing your own intercultural interactions. The Nature and Forms of Intercultural Communication e r As discussed in Chapter 1, the term intercultural communication refers to communication between persons who have different cultural beliefs, values, or ways of behaving. The model in Figure 2.1 illustrates this concept. The larger circles represent the culture of the individual communicators. The inner circles symbolize the communicators (the sources--receivers). In this model each communicator is a member of a different culture. In some instances the cultural differences are relatively slight---say, between persons from Toronto and New York. In other instances the cultural differences are great---say, between a farmer in Borneo and a surgeon in Germany. All messages originate from within a specific and unique cultural context, and that context influences the messages' content and form. You communicate as you do largely as a result of your culture. Culture (along with the u t Source Receiver r Messages l u t Source Receiver l figure 2.1 A Model of Intercultural Communication u This basic model of intercultural communication is designed to illustrate that culture is a part of every communication transac tion. What other ways can you think of to illustrate the process of intercultural communication? C u C ChAPTeR 2 CulturE and CommuniCation 57 processes of enculturation and acculturation) influences every aspect of your communication experience. The following types of communication may all be considered "intercultural" and, more important, sub ject to the varied barriers and gateways to effective communication identified in this chapter: Communication between people of different national cultures---for example, between Chinese and Portuguese individuals or between French and Norwegian individuals. Communication between people of different races (sometimes called interracial communication)---for example, between African Americans and Asian Americans. Communication between people of different ethnic groups (sometimes called interethnic commu nication)---for example, between Italian Americans and German Americans. Communication between people of different religions---for example, between Roman Catholics and Episcopalians or between Muslims and Jews. Communication between nations (sometimes called international communication)---for example, between the United States and Argentina or between China and Rwanda. Communication between genders---between men and women. Communication between smaller cultures existing within the larger culture---for example, between homosexuals and heterosexuals, doctors and pa tients, research scientists and the general public, or between those with and those without disabili ties, a topic covered in Table 2.3, on page 58. Improving Intercultural Communication Murphy's law ("If anything can go wrong, it will") is especially applicable to intercultural communication. Intercultural communication is, of course, subject to all the same barriers and problems as are the other forms of communication discussed throughout this text. In this section, however, we'll consider some suggestions designed to counteract the barriers that are unique to intercultural communication (Barna, 1997; Ruben, 1985; Spitzberg, 1991). Above all, intercultural communication depends on the cultural sensitivity of both individuals. Cultural sensitivity is an attitude and way of behaving in which you're aware of and acknowledge cultural dif ferences. Cultural sensitivity is crucial on a global scale, as in efforts toward world peace and economic growth; it's also essential for effective interpersonal CommuniCaTion ChoiCe PoinT Getting Your Foot out of Your mouth At work you tell a homophobic joke only to discover that it was resented and clearly violated the organizational norms for polite and unbiased talk. What are some of your options for making this situation a little less awkward and potentially damaging to your work experience? What would you say? to whom? through what channel? communication and for general success in life (Franklin & Mizell, 1995). Without cultural sensitivity there can be no effective interpersonal communication between people who are different in gender or race or nation ality or affectional orientation. So be mindful of the cultural differences between yourself and the other person. For example, the close physical distance that is normal in Arab cultures may prove too familiar or too intrusive in much of the United States and northern Europe. The empathy that most Americans welcome may be uncomfortable for most Koreans (Yun, 1976). The following guidelines can help you improve your intercultural communication: (1) prepare yourself; (2) reduce your ethnocentrism; (3) confront your stereo types; (4) be mindful; (5) avoid overattribution; (6) rec ognize differences; and (7) adjust your communication. We'll take a look at each guideline in turn. PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication 58 Between People with and without Disabilities Table 2.3 cOMMUnicatiOn tipS Here we look at communication between those with general disabilities---for example, people in wheel chairs or with cerebral palsy---and those who have no such disability. The suggestions offered here are considered appropriate in the United States, although not necessarily in other cultures. For example, most people in the United States accept the phrase "person with mental retardation," but the term is considered offensive to many in the United Kingdom (Fernald, 1995). if you're the person without a general disability: Generally Specifically use person-first language where the person, rather than the disability, is emphasized. avoid terms that define the person as disabled. avoid such expressions as "the disabled man" or "the handi capped child." instead, using "person-first" language, say "person with a disability." respect assistive devices such as wheelchairs, canes, walkers, or crutches. don't move these out of your way; they're for the conve nience of the person with the disability. avoid leaning on a person's wheelchair; it's similar to leaning on a person. Shake hands with the person with the disability if you shake hands with others in a group. don't avoid shaking hands because the individual's hand has lost some normal function, for example. avoid talking about the person with a disability in the third person. For example, avoid saying, "doesn't he get around beautifully with the new crutches." direct your comments directly to the individual. Even if the person has an interpreter, direct your comments to the person with the disability, not the interpreter. don't assume that people who have a disability are intellectually impaired. Slurred speech---such as may occur with people who have cerebral palsy or cleft palate---should not be taken as indicating a low-level intellect. Be careful not to talk down to such individuals as, research shows, many people do (unger, 2001). When you're not sure of how to act, ask. For example, if you're not sure if you should offer walk ing assistance, say, "Would you like me to help you into the dining room?" and, more important, accept the person's response. if he or she says no, then that means no; don't insist. maintain similar eye level. if the person is in a wheelchair, for example, it might be helpful for you to sit down or kneel down to get onto the same eye level. if you're the person with a general disability: Communicate your feelings. For example, if you want someone to speak in a louder voice, ask. if you want to relax and have someone push your wheelchair, say so. Be patient and understanding. many people mean well but may simply not know how to act or what to say. Put them at ease as best you can. demonstrate your own comfort. if you detect discomfort in the other person, you might talk a bit about your disability to show that you're not uncomfortable about it---and that you understand that others may not know how you feel. But you're under no obligation to educate the public, so don't feel this is something you should or have to do. Sources: these suggestions are based on a wide variety of sources, including www.empowermentzone.com/etiquet.txt (the website for the national center for access Unlimited), www.disabilityinfo.gov, www.drc.uga.edu, www.ndmig.com, and www.ucpa.org/. TIPS prepare Yourself ChAPTeR 2 CulturE and CommuniCation 59 It feels natural being part of my ethnic group. There's no better preparation for intercultural com munication than learning about the other culture. Fortunately, there are numerous sources to draw on. View a video or film that presents a realistic view of the culture. Read what members of the culture as well as "outsiders" write about the culture. Scan magazines and websites from the culture. Talk with members of the culture. Chat in international chat rooms. Read blogs from members of the culture. Read materials addressed to people who need to communi cate with those from other cultures. The easiest way to do this is to search the Internet for such keywords as culture, international, and foreign travel. Another part of this preparation is to recognize and face fears that may stand in the way of effec tive intercultural communication (Gudykunst, 1994; Stephan & Stephan, 1985). For example, you may fear for your self-esteem. You may be anxious about your ability to control the intercultural situation, or you may worry about your own level of discomfort. You may fear saying something that will be considered politically incorrect or culturally insensitive. You may fear that you'll be taken advantage of by a member of the other culture. Depending on your own stereotypes, you may fear being lied to, financially duped, or made fun of. You may fear that members of this other group will react to you negatively. You may fear, for example, that they will not like you or will disapprove of your attitudes or beliefs or perhaps even reject you as a person. Conversely, you may fear nega tive reactions from members of your own group. They might, for example, disapprove of your socializing with culturally different people. Some fears, of course, are reasonable. In many cases, however, fears are groundless. Either way, you need to assess your concerns logically and weigh their consequences carefully. Then you'll be able to make informed choices about your communications. reduce Your ethnocentrism As you learn your culture's ways, you develop an ethnic identity---that is, a commitment to the beliefs and philosophy of your culture (Chung & Ting Toomey, 1999). The degree to which you identify with your cultural group can be measured by your responses to such questions as the following (from Ting-Toomey, 1981). Using a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), indicate how true the following statements are for you: I am increasing my involvement in activities with my ethnic group. I involve myself in causes that will help members of my ethnic group. I have spent time trying to find out more about my own ethnic group. I am happy to be a member of my ethnic group. I have a strong sense of belonging to my ethnic group. I often talk to other members of my group to learn more about my ethnic culture. High scores (5s and 4s) indicate a strong commit ment to your culture's values and beliefs; low num bers (1s and 2s) indicate a relatively weak commit ment. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to see others and their behaviors through your own cultural filters, often as distortions of your own behaviors. It's the tendency to evaluate the values, beliefs, and behav iors of your own culture as more positive, superior, logical, and natural than those of other cultures. So although ethnocentrism may give you pride in your own culture and its achievements and may encour age you to sacrifice for that culture, it also may lead you to see other cultures as inferior and may foster an unwillingness to profit from the contributions of other cultures. For example, recent research shows a "substantial relationship" between ethnocentrism and homophobia (Wrench & McCroskey, 2003). Ethnocentrism exists on a continuum. People are not either ethnocentric or not ethnocentric; rather, most are somewhere between these polar opposites. And, of course, your degree of ethnocentrism varies depending on the group on which you focus. For example, if you're Greek American, you may have a low degree of ethnocentrism when dealing with Italian Americans, but a high degree when dealing with Turkish Americans or Japanese Americans. Your degree of ethnocentrism (and we're all ethnocentric to at least some degree) will influence your com munication in all its forms, an influence illustrated throughout this text. Confront Your stereotypes Stereotypes, especially when they operate below the level of conscious awareness, can create seri ous communication problems. Originally, stereotype was a printing term that referred to the plate that printed the same image over and over. A sociologi cal or psychological stereotype is a fixed impres sion of a group of people. Everyone has attitudinal stereotypes---of national groups, religious groups, or racial groups or perhaps of criminals, prostitutes, teachers, or plumbers. Ask yourself, for example, if you have any stereotypes of, say, bodybuilders, the opposite sex, a racial group different from your own, members of a religion very different from your PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication 60 Understanding theory and research Language and Thought the linguistic relativity hypothesis claims (1) that the language you speak influences the thoughts you have and (2) that, therefore, people speaking widely differing languages will see the world differently and will think differently. theory and research, however, have not been able to find much support for this claim. a more modified hypoth esis currently seems supported: the language you speak helps you to talk about what you see and perhaps to high light what you see. for example, if you speak a language that is rich in color terms (english is a good example), you will find it easier to talk about nuances of color than will someone from a culture that has fewer color terms (some cultures, for example, distinguish only two, three, or four parts of the color spectrum). but this doesn't mean that people see the world differently, only that their lan guage helps (or doesn't help) them to talk about certain variations in the world and may make it easier (or more difficult) to focus their thinking on such variations. nor does it mean that people speaking widely differing languages are doomed to misunderstand one another. translation enables you to understand a great deal of the meaning in any foreign language message. and, of course, you have your communication skills; you can ask for clarification, for additional examples, for restatement. You can listen actively, give feed forward and feedback, use perception checking, and employ a host of other skills you'll encounter through out this course. language differences don't make for very impor tant differences in perception or thought. Difficulties in intercultural understanding are due more often to ineffective communication than to differences in languages. Working with Theories and Research Based on your own experience, how influential do you find language differences to be in perception and thought? Can you recall any misunderstandings that might be attributed to a particular language's leading its speakers to see or interpret things differently? own, hard drug users, or college professors. It is very likely that you have stereotypes of several or perhaps all of these groups. Although we often think of stereotypes as negative ("They're lazy, dirty, and only interested in getting high"), they may also be positive ("They're smart, hardworking, and extremely loyal"). But, even pos itive stereotypes have negative consequences; they reinforce the idea that members are fundamentally different and can be easily grouped together (thereby denying individual differences). Not surprisingly, even positive stereotypes generate negative feelings in those stereotyped (Kay, Day, & Zanna, in press). If you have these fixed impressions, you might, upon meeting a member of a particular group, see that person primarily as a member of that group. Initially, a stereotype may provide you with some helpful orientation. However, it creates problems when you apply to a person all the characteristics you assign to members of that person's group with out examining the unique individual. If you meet a politician, for example, you may apply to the person a series of stereotypical "politician" images. To com plicate matters further, you may see in the person's behavior the manifestation of various characteristics that you would not see if you did not know that this person was a politician. In online communication, because there are few visual and auditory cues, it's not surprising to find that people form impressions of their online communication partner with a heavy reliance on stereotypes (Jacobson, 1999). Consider another kind of stereotype: You're driv ing along a dark road and are stopped at a stop sign. A car pulls up beside you and three teenagers jump out and rap on your window. There may be a variety of reasons for this: They may need help, they may want to ask directions, or they may be planning a carjacking. Your self-protective stereotype may help you decide on "carjacking" and may lead you to pull away and into the safety of a busy service station. In doing that, of course, you may have escaped being carjacked, or you may have failed to assist innocent people who needed your help. Stereotyping can lead to two major thinking and communication barriers. First, you will fail to appreciate the multifaceted nature of all people and all groups. The tendency to group a person into a class and to respond to that person primarily as a member of that class can lead you to perceive that a person pos sesses those qualities (usually negative) that you believe characterize the group to which he or she belongs. For example, consider your stereotype of an avid computer user. Very likely it's quite different from the research findings---which show that such users are as often ChAPTeR 2 CulturE and CommuniCation 61 female as male and are as sociable, popular, and self-assured as their peers who are not into heavy computer use (Schott & Selwyn, 2000). Second, stereotyping also can lead you to ignore the unique characteristics of an indi vidual; you therefore fail to benefit from the special contributions each person can bring to an encounter. increase mindfulness Being mindful rather than mindless (a distinction considered in more detail in Chapter 7) is generally helpful in intercul tural communication situations (Burgoon, Berger, & Waldron, 2000). When you're in a mindless state, you behave on the basis of assumptions that would not normally pass intellectual scrutiny. For example, you know that cancer is not contagious, and yet you may still avoid touching cancer patients. You know that people who are blind gener ally don't have hearing problems, yet you may use a louder voice when talking to per sons who are visually impaired. When the discrepancies between behaviors and avail able evidence are pointed out and your mindful state is awakened, you quickly realize that these behaviors are not logical or realistic. You can look at this textbook and your course in human communication as means of awakening your mindful state about the way you engage in in terpersonal, group, and public communication. After completing this course, you should be much more mindful and much less mindless about all your com munication behavior. avoid overattribution CommuniCaTion ChoiCe PoinT ConFliCtinG Cultural BelieFS You're dating a person from a culture very different from your own, and your views on important matters (for example, relationship responsibilities, finances, children, and religion) differ widely. You're now wondering if there's any future for this relationship. What are some of your options for exploring this question by yourself and with your dating partner? What are some of the things you might say to your partner? and ways of behaving are influenced by a wide variety of factors; culture is just one of them. recognize Differences To communicate interculturally it's necessary to rec ognize (1) the differences between yourself and peo ple from other cultures, (2) the differences within the other cultural group, (3) the numerous differences in meaning, and (4) differences in dialect and accent. Differences between Yourself and the Culturally Overattribution is the tendency to attribute too much of a person's behavior or attitudes to one of that person's characteristics (she thinks that way because she's a woman; he believes that because he was raised as a Catholic). In intercultural commu nication situations, overattribution appears in two ways. First, it's the tendency to see too much of what a person believes or does as caused by the person's cultural identification. Second, it's the tendency to see a person as a spokesperson for his or her particu lar culture---to assume that because a person is, say, African American, he or she is therefore knowledge able about the entire African American experience or that the person's thoughts are always focused on African American issues. People's ways of thinking Different. A common barrier to intercultural com munication occurs when you assume similarities and ignore differences. When you do, you'll fail to notice important distinctions and be more apt to miscom municate. Consider this example: An American invites a Filipino coworker to dinner. The Filipino politely refuses. The American is hurt and feels that the Filipino does not want to be friendly. The Filipino is hurt and concludes that the invitation was not extended sincerely. Here, it seems, both the American and the Filipino assume that their customs for inviting people to dinner are the same when, in fact, they aren't. A Filipino expects to be invited several times before accepting a dinner invitation. When an invitation is given only once, it's viewed as insincere. PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication 62 Making EThiCaL ChoiCEs culture and Ethics one of the most shocking revelations to come to world attention after the events of september 11, 2001, was the way in which women were treated under taliban rule in afghanistan: females could not be edu cated or even go out in public without a male relative escort and when in public had to wear garments that covered their entire body. throughout history there have been cultural practices that today would be judged unethical. sacrificing virgins to the gods, burning people who held different religious beliefs, and sending children to fight religious wars are obvious examples. but even today there are practices woven deep into the fabric of different cultures that you might find unethical. as you read these few examples of cultural practices with special relevance to interpersonal communication, consider what u.s. cultural practices people in other cultures might judge as unethical. female genital mutilation whereby part or all of a young girl's genitals are surgically altered so she can never experience sexual intercourse without extreme pain, a practice designed to keep her a virgin until marriage the belief and practice that a woman must be subservient to her husband's will women should not report spousal abuse because it will reflect negatively on the family sexual behavior between members of the same sex is punishable by imprisonment and even death ethical Choice Point only men can initiate divorce, and only men are permitted to drive Here's another example: An American college student hears the news that her favorite uncle has died. She bites her lip, pulls herself up, and politely excuses herself from the group of foreign students with whom she is having dinner. The Russian thinks: "How unfriendly." The Italian thinks: "How insin cere." The Brazilian thinks: "How unconcerned." To many Americans, it's a sign of bravery to endure pain (physical or emotional) in silence and without any outward show of emotion. To members of other groups, such silence is often interpreted negatively to mean that the individual does not consider them friends who can share such sorrow because, in their cultures, people are expected to reveal to friends how they feel. Differences within the Culturally Different group. Recognize that within every cultural group there are vast and important differences. As all Americans are not alike, neither are all Indonesians, Greeks, Mexicans, and so on. When you ignore these differences---when you assume that all per sons covered by the same label (in this case a national or ethnic label) are the same---you're guilty of stereotyping. A good example of this is seen in the use of the term African American. The What ethical obligations do you have for communicating your beliefs about cultural practices you think are unethi cal when such topics come up in conversation or in class discussions? What are your ethical choices? term stresses the unity of Africa and of those who are of African descent and is analogous to Asian American or European American. At the same time, it ignores the great diversity within the African con tinent when, for example, it's used as analogous to German American or Japanese American. More analo gous terms would be Nigerian American or Ethiopian American. Within each culture there are smaller cul tures that differ greatly from each other and from the larger culture. Differences in meaning. See the meaning of a message not only in the words used but also in the people using them (a principle we'll return to in Chapter 5). Consider, for example, the differences in meaning that exist for words such as religion to a born-again Christian and an atheist and lunch to a Haitian farmer and a Madison Avenue advertising executive. Even though the same word is used, its meanings will vary greatly depending on the listeners' cultural definitions. The same is true of nonverbal messages. For ex ample, a left-handed American who eats with the left hand may be seen by a Muslim as obscene. To the Muslim, the left hand isn't used for eating or for shaking hands but to clean oneself after excretory ChAPTeR 2 CulturE and CommuniCation 63 functions. So using the left hand to eat or to shake hands would generally be considered inappropriate. Differences in Dialect and accent. Dialects are variations in a language, mainly in the grammar and the semantics. The difference between language and dialect---at least as viewed by most linguists---is that different languages are mutually unintelligible; differ ent dialects are mutually intelligent. So, for example, a person who grew up with only the English language would not be able to understand Russian and vice versa. But, people speaking different dialects of English (say, Southern and Northern) would be able to understand each other. It's interesting to note that the Southerner, for example, will perceive the New Englander to speak with an accent but will not perceive another Southerner to have an accent. Similarly, the New Englander will per ceive the Southerner to have an accent but not a fellow New Englander. Actually, linguists would argue that everyone speaks a dialect; it's just that we don't per ceive speech like ours to be a dialect. We only think of speech different from ours as being a dialect. Some dialects are popularly (but not scientifically) labeled "standard" and some are labeled "nonstan dard." Standard dialect would be the language that is recommended by dictionaries and that is covered in the English handbooks you've likely already ex perienced. Nonstandard dialect would be any varia tion from this. This concept of dialect can easily and logically be extended to texting and social media language. Today, the abbreviated texting style would be considered nonstandard; tomorrow, things may be different. Linguistically, all dialects are equal. But, although no one dialect is linguistically superior to any other dialect, it is equally true that judgments are made on the basis of dialect and the type of judgment made would depend on the person making the judgment. So, for example, you'd be advised to use standard dialect in applying to the traditional conservative law firm and to write your e-mails to them in Standard English, the kind recommended by the English hand books. On the other hand, when you're out with friends or texting, you may feel more comfortable using nonstandard forms. When differences in speech are differences in pro nunciation we refer to them as accents, the empha sis or stress you place on various syllables. Just as everyone speaks with a particular dialect, everyone also speaks with a particular accent. Again, we notice accents that are different from our own and, in fact, don't refer to speech that sounds like ours as hav ing any accent at all. But, all speakers speak with an accent. The "accents" that we probably notice most often are those that occur in speakers who learned the language in their teens or later. The second lan guage is spoken through a kind of filter created by the original language. But, if you grew up in an English-speaking country with English-speaking par ents, you also speak with an accent. It's just that you don't perceive it as such. Linguistically, everyone speaks with an accent; it's simply a fact of life. In terms of communication, however, we need to recognize that accents are often used by people to pigeon-hole and stereotype others; for example, in some people's minds, certain accents are associated with lower class and others with up per class. Some accents are perceived as more cred ible, more knowledgeable, and more educated than others. adjust Your Communication Intercultural communication (in fact, all communi cation) takes place only to the extent that you and the person you're trying to communicate with share the same system of symbols. As Chapter 1 discussed, your interaction will be hindered to the extent that your language and nonverbal systems differ (the prin ciple of adjustment). Therefore, it's important to adjust your communication to compensate for cul tural differences. Furthermore, it helps if you share your own system of signals with others so they can better understand you. Although some people may know what you mean by your silence or by your avoidance of eye contact, others may not. Generally, avoid expecting others to decode your behaviors accurately without help. Communication accommodation theory, as ex plained in Chapter 1, holds that speakers will adjust or accommodate to the communication style of their listeners in order to interact more pleasantly and efficiently. As you adjust your messages, recognize that each culture has its own rules and customs for communication (Barna, 1997). These rules identify what is appropriate and what is inappropriate. Thus, for example, in U.S. culture you would call a person you wished to date three or four days in advance. In certain Asian cultures you might call the person's parents weeks or even months in advance. In U.S. culture you say, as a general friendly gesture and not as a specific invitation, "come over and pay us a visit sometime." To members of other cultures, this com ment is sufficient to prompt the listeners actually to visit at their convenience. Table 2.4, on the following page, summarizes these guidelines for more effective intercultural communication. PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication 64 Improving Intercultural Communication Here are some guidelines for improving intercultural communication along with some specific strategies. Table 2.4 In A Nutshell General Guidelines Specific Strategies Prepare Yourself read about, view images and videos of, and interact with culturally different individuals. reduce Your Ethnocentrism Becoming aware of your own ethnocentrism can help you see its illogic. Confront Your Stereotypes recognize that stereotypes are generalizations that prevent you from seeing the individual except through this stereotype. increase mindfulness Become aware of why you do or think what you do; act with awareness, and develop and question beliefs and attitudes mindfully. avoid overattribution avoid attributing another's behavior to one or even a few factors; most often behavior is a combination of interrelated factors. recognize differences recognize that differences exist between yourself and the culturally different, within the culturally different group, in meaning, and in dialect and accent. at the same time, don't fail to note the similarities. adjust Your Communication understanding the meanings that others have for gestures or for interpersonal interactions will help you adjust your own messages. jamie and tim are in the same world history class. it is friday afternoon, and their midterm papers are due monday morning. jamie has already turned in his paper, but tim is just get ting started. tim's laptop is acting up, so he asks jamie to borrow his for the weekend. jamie wants to be polite and wants to help his friend, but isn't comfortable loaning out his laptop and wonders if their different cultures are affecting how they see the situation. jamie consid ers the topics covered in this chapter as he contemplates his communication choices for deal ing with these differences and the likely advantages and disadvantages of each choice