COMM-2P15 Exam Review PDF

COMM-2P15 Exam Reveiw Week 1 What is research? A set of perspectives and skills that are applied to questions or problems A form of argument ○ Most published research is constructed as an argument. The Toulmin Model Stephen Toulmin (1958) Every report or essay should have a...

COMM-2P15 Exam Reveiw Week 1 What is research? A set of perspectives and skills that are applied to questions or problems A form of argument ○ Most published research is constructed as an argument. The Toulmin Model Stephen Toulmin (1958) Every report or essay should have a clear claim, sufficient data, and a compelling warrant that links the data to the claim Data: Observations, physical evidence, or measurements Claim: A position to be argued or an insight to be explored ○ A claim may be expressed as a thesis, hypothesis or research question ○ Thesis: statement defended with data and reasoning ○ Hypothesis: informed judgment tested with data and reasoning ○ Research question: The question answered with data and reasoning Warrant: OED: anything that authorizes a person or an action or CRM: a standard for evaluating the value of the data supporting a claim (p.301) ○ A warrant can be: a generally accepted assumption a shared belief an appeal to authority (i.e., expert, recognized person) a law of nature a principle of human behaviour a carefully planned research method ○ Good methods provide excellent warrants. ○ The warrant prompts us to ask: how do we know what we know? why do we think what we know is true? Example using The Toulmin Model  “Usain Bolt is the fastest man who has ever lived. He holds the world record time for the 100m race.” Claim “Usain Bolt is the fastest man who has ever lived.” Data “He holds the world record time for the 100m race.” Warrant not stated! ○ How do we know the world record time? ○ Is the data trustworthy? Week 1 Five Principles of Research Systematic: carefully consider and account for all possible variations Disciplined: respect the evidence discovered; do not fall back on assumptions Verifiable: any discovery should be replicable by other researchers under the same conditions Cautious: do not claim that findings apply to anything beyond what was studied in the research Value-free: The personal opinions of the researcher should not affect the outcome of the research Empiricism A philosophical position which privileges evidence derived from the five senses, or observations, over everything else Empirical questions Those questions which can be answered through measurement Argument against “value-free” research We use language to describe and comprehend the world through symbols & sounds (letters, numbers, figures) Language is a human invention composed of symbols that bear no direct relationship to the world; they are arbitrary even when shared by many people. (example: chair – chaïse – êáñÝêëá – ) If we comprehend the world through symbols, we must accept that our knowledge is fallible... and we cannot claim to know absolute truths that are true for all people. If you accept that researchers cannot dismiss their personal values as they work, how can any research be acceptable? Other people will accept your conclusions only if they are compelling and supported by credible data. A researcher’s standpoint may affect how the data is shared with other researchers. Bacon vs the Language Argument The Major assumption underlying Bacon’s scientific method that “truth” itself exists... or can be known by humanity Agree? You believe objective knowledge is attainable Disagree? You believe human knowledge is fallible, so only subjective knowledge is attainable. Basic formats for scholarly research publications Research report: a summary of a research project. ○ Typically has an objective standpoint ○ Claim phrased as a hypothesis or question. ○ Divided into clearly labelled sections addressing theory, research method, findings, and analysis. ○ The project should be replicable by other scholars Critical essay: an argument supporting a claim ○ Typically has a subjective standpoint ○ Claim phrased as a thesis or question ○ Presented as a single, continuous argument ○ Arguments may or may not be replicable by other scholar Data are presented to replicate the research process. Basic process: Research Establish topic and claim: thesis, question, or hypothesis ○ An interesting topic and a curiosity for more information. Have a topic and a specific issue to explore The issue will become the focus of your claim (thesis, hypothesis, or research question) ○ Context is everything. Your research topic determines what is primary data and what is secondary. Review the literature: assess previous research ○ Discover how others have approached your claim Select a research method: identify sources ○ Each method generates different kinds of data ○ Fit your method to your claim ○ It must collect the data you require Collect data using the method organize and interpret the data: gather and make sense of your data ○ Historical & policy research usually requires primary sources ○ Problem: are reliable primaries available?  Conclude: defend thesis, answer the research question, or reveal if hypothesis was correct, most importantly, draw insights! Basic structure: report or essay Introduction: articulate a claim Review the literature: assess previous research Method: describe research method Findings discussion (analysis): describe and interpret the data Conclusion: summarize the research & argument Appendix (if necesssary) Works cited / references Peer-review / gatekeeping All researchers’ work is assessed by their “peers,” or other researchers with expertise in the same field Researcher’s career Graduate education Research grants, scholarships, fellowships Employment, promotion Publication in academic journals, presses Awards Audiences for research Other researchers Research participants Stakeholders Practitioners in the private sector, charitable sector Government agencies Dissemination Meetings of professional associations ○ re: associations of researchers in the same field – books published by academic presses Articles published by scholarly journals Commissioned studies for government Commissioned studies for the private sector The popular press, websites, documentaries Researchers share a common culture  Its values are the five principles of research These values are put into practice through... ○ advanced training led by established researchers ○ adherence to the scientific method ○ data supported by well-explained warrants Peer review of all research peer review means that the community of researchers is self-regulating and self-policing Week 2 Primary sources of information Provide data/evidence with a direct relationship to the object of study ○ participant ○ witness (e.g., journalist, bystander) ○ document or artifact made by a participant or witness (e.g., song, photo, diary, letter, video...) Secondary sources of information Provide data/evidence with a mediated relationship to the object of study ○ family member or friend of a participant or witness ○ journalist who interviewed the participant or witness ○ account or analysis based on documents or artifacts (e.g., magazine story, book, documentary, website...) Other types of documents that fall into this category: are documentary films, tv programs, podcasts, curated museum exhibits, and websites (ex: Wikipedia) Professional literature review A systematic and comprehensive assessment of the secondary sources on a specific topic Why conduct literature reviews? 1. To know your topic thoroughly. 2. Acquire the most reliable, up-to-date information available 3. Avoid duplication of other people’s work; avoid plagiarism, lawsuits, and unemployment How to conduct literature reviews 1. Identify the most recent, most prominent secondary sources on your topic 2. Read them carefully and critically; assess their arguments 3. Draw conclusions: are the secondary sources on your topic credible, compelling, and satisfying? How to search for sources 1. Go to the University Library search engine (Omni) 2. Start by seeking research on your topic and specific focus. Search for recent research first why? a. It should be leading edge b. It should reference the best work in the field 3. Find research on the topic in general, as needed 4. Find related research as needed Read research critically: a checklis.t 0. take notes; start with a proper bibliographic reference 1. Identify the claim – does the research directly address your topic & claim? 2. How was data discovered and collected? – was the collection method systematic? 3. Are the data credible and verifiable? – primary or secondary? 4. Assess the warrant: – are the data relevant to the claim? 5. Assess the overall argument – is the interpretation disciplined and cautious? – do you agree or disagree with the author’s conclusion? Literature review recap Systematic and comprehensive assessment of secondary sources on a specific subject Start with sources that best address your claim The most recent works are usually sought first; use them to identify the best sources The credibility of a source is very important, so we usuallly seek peer-reviewed works, but formats are not important Be a critical reader! Week 3 Perspective A set of assumptions about knowledge that shapes how researchers look at problems. ○ Can develop unconsciously ○ Should be recognized, self-consciously, so researchers understand how their perspectives affect their work. simple example: different visual perspectives generate different sets of data about the same phenomena Objective research To evaluate data from a neutral perspective, without bias or preconceived notions The researcher excludes personal inclinations and observes the world as it supposedly appears to all people. Subjective research To evaluate data while acknowledging one’s perspective, which may contain bias or preconceived notions The researcher denies objectivity is possible and accepts that an absolute truth for all people may not exist. Reconciling these two positions Let your values inform your questions... ○ Acknowledge your perspective or bias ○ Be driven by your personal inclinations and curiosity... But let your findings surprise you ○ Accept that data may not match your expectations ○ Interpret data without preconceptions Functionalism (objective/ activist / managerial) Basic assumptions 1. Objective truth is knowable 2. If something exists, it must have a purpose; a thing’s purpose is its essential nature 3. Human nature is also stable, predictable, and knowable 4. Communication & cultural practices are also stable, predictable, and knowable a. different kinds of practices have different functions b. practices can be assessed by how well they function Basic research goals 1. Catalogue and predict behaviours  2. Identify and diagnose problems 3. Explore and clarify solutions These goals emphasize description and prediction with an eye on efficiency and productivity persona is managerial Interpretivism (subjective / academic / non-judgmental) Basic assumptions: 1. Reality may be stable and knowable, but human knowledge is fallible and thus subjective 2. Human nature is not rational and predictable; we can only observe & interpret people in social contexts 3. It is important to understand the meaning & significance attached to communication & cultural practices by the participants in social contexts Basic research goals following Linda L. Putnam: 1. Observe and describe interactions 2. Interpret the significance of interactions for participants John E. Hocking: “Sometimes we are interested in observing an event as an end in itself.” These goals emphasize description and interpretation with an eye on understanding persona is academic Critical Perspective (subjective / activist / judgmental) Basic assumptions: 1. Reality may be stable and knowable, but human knowledge is fallible and thus subjective 2. Human nature is not rational and predictable; we can only observe & interpret people in social contexts 3. It is important to understand the meaning & significance attached to communication & cultural practices by the participants in social contexts 4. It is important to assess the legitimacy of communication & cultural practices Basic goals: 1. Observe and describe interactions 2. Interpret the significance of interactions 3. Judge interactions  These goals emphasize interpretation and judgment; often, a judgment prompts reform persona is activist Week 3 History “A record of what has happened in the past” Policy Planned rules governing expectations for behaviour; generally administrative; can be public or private, formal or informal Archive Repository or collection of original documents Longitudinal (adj) describing a trend which occurs over time; e.g., social trends, growth, decline, consistency Presentist (adj) a bias toward the present day that affects historical perspective Qualitative research  Involves data which is textual / visual Examples: most arts, film, history, & policy analyses; ethnography They’re not mutually exclusive! – a single research project can use both kinds of data Quantitative research Requires data which is numerical / statistical Examples: most content analyses, surveys They’re not mutually exclusive! – a single research project can use both kinds of data Historical and Policy Analysis: Uses 1. Understand how / why something happened in the past Research generally requires primary sources Assumption: knowledge provides insight into process / decisions Example national film distribution policies: ○ Do other countries have film industry policies? ○ Are their policies successful? ○ Is Canadian situation comparable? 2. Provide context for current phenomena Assumptions: knowing the past helps to understand the present and adapt. See current events as extension of past events; not random Example new chair appointed to CRTC: ○ Who is she? ○ What’s her background? ○ What experience does she have? 3. Understand change assumption: knowing the past helps to prepare for future, and predict possible outcomes Assumption: knowing the past helps to prepare for future, and predict possible outcomes Example: ○ What was TV’s impact on news and entertainment in the 1950s? ○ What was available before TV? ○ How fast did TV spread? ○ Did everyone have access to TV? 4. Understand the past for its own sake “The past is a different country.” L.P. Hartley, The Go-Between (1953) Example study early magazines and start of consumer culture ○ Why were women linked to shopping? (functional) ○ Are women today similar to women then? (interpretive)  ○ Do past ideas justify on-going “traditions”? (critical) Week 4 Historical and Policy Analysis 1. Define the research problem 2. Review the literature 3. Select research method 4. Identify sources and repositories What kind of source? Which repository? 5. Explain your analysis a. Research design b. Approach to the data (author? theory?) 6. Conduct research 7. Data preparation and analysis Identifying sources Published Sources: any texts which are printed and widely distributed such as A. Published material ○ Books ○ Newspapers ○ Magazines ○ Comic books ○ Manuals ○ Catalogues ○ Pamphlets ○ Maps ○ Post cards ○ Posters Source B. Unpublished Sources ○ Documents never published or with limited distribution ○ Three categories:  Personal papers (individuals) e.g., politicians, journalists, artists Corporate records (private organizations and companies) e.g., publishers, broadcasters, ad agencies Corporate records (government departments and agencies) e.g., CRTC, Telefilm Canada, CBC, Ontario Arts Council Repository (where courses are found) i) Research libraries ○ Specialized collections for advanced audiences e.g., peer-reviewed, scholarly publications ○ Some may possess popular print culture e.g., newspapers, magazines, novels ○ Examples Map Library, Brock (MC-C306) ii) Special Collections ○ Maintain rare publications in original formats ○ Generally follow a specific collection mandate Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto: primarily collects Canadiana iii) Archives ○ Maintain unpublished papers and related materials in original formats ○ Generally, each archive has a specific collection mandate Example National Library & Archives >> of Canada, Ottawa Mandate = anything significant to national culture iv) Museums and Galleries ○ Maintain collections of physical artifacts and related materials in original formats ○ Generally have a specific collection mandate Example Canadian Museum of Science & Technology, Ottawa Mandate = anything significant to Canadian science & technology McMichael Collection, Kleinberg, Ontario Mandate = Group of Seven and other Canadian artists v) Survivors ○ Any person with direct experience of the phenomenon you are researching ○ Example Anne MacLennan, York University, in 1990s Interviewing seniors about their memories of radio programs in 1930s-1940 Research tips  Some repositories retain all formats; check everything! Many collections are in private hands ○ Example film collector Reg Hartt Remember: How you look at an issue shapes your understanding of it. ○ Understand how you are approaching your topic! Locating resources 1. Review the literature Previous researchers have probably found excellent sources on your topic; read their articles and books to see what sources they found 2. Check the Canadian Archival Information Database, National Library and Archives www.archivescanada.ca 3. Start from scratch First ○ Imagine where should they be (e.g., what city?) ○ Imagine the format ○ Is there a suitable repository for that format in that city? Then ○ Internet search for most suitable repository in that city ○ Contact most suitable repository in that city Explain yoru analysis: A) Research design  Justify your research decisions When conducting research, you must know ○ How your sources are linked to the subject ○ Why your sources are the best available ○ How you will actually collect data from your sources ○ Have a positive reason for using a source! Remember: a good research design is the best warrant for your data or evidence. B) Conduct research Go to repository with the sources you require Collect data from the sources you require (in other words, take notes) Week 4 Data preparation and analysis A) Assess reliability of your data ○ Be aware of potential problems in your data ○ Two ways to do this: i. corroborate or data triangulation: find two or more sources with data on same issue ii. be sceptical: consider specific aspects of production e.g., author’s motivation? who was audience? B) Finding patterns and turning points ○ Consider all the data you have collected and look for Patterns: recurring behaviours and events, or trends Turning points: moments of significant change; “signposts” ○ Remember… description = to identify and summarize and data analysis = to understand and explain data i. sort chronologically Plot data on a timeline (description) Construct a narrative linking events (analysis) Remember: events can be personal / regional / national / international. Be comprehensive; the more you can explain, the more compelling your argument will be Example: introduction of radio and television to households came ten years  after they were available. Why? ii. sort thematically, with two or more timelines Several themes may emerge in your data Isolate each theme Create one timeline for each theme Develop one narrative for each theme’s timeline Example: different aspects of radio developed at different times for different reasons Historical and Policy Analysis: Key Points 1. Explain every research decision you make, including your theory 2. Be methodical and precise in searching for sources Finding trustworthy, primary sources can be the most difficult aspect of historical & policy research 3. Be very careful when interpreting your data Be sceptical of sources Try to find two or more sources on each topic (triangulation) Search for patterns in your data Week 5: Lecture 8 For any case study 1. Analysis must be rooted in real world data / evidence 2. Data / evidence must give comprehensive view of topic 3. Your data / evidence can be qualitative or quantitative d) your sources can come in any format 4. Your claim can be historical or contemporary; and can be viewed with any perspective Bottom line: data / evidence must be real world, and relevant to claim Parallels betweeen case, historical, and policy analysis 1. Topic can be any person, group, artifact, trend, or culture 2. Research usually requires detailed qualitative evidence, but quantitative data is also welcome 3. Evidence organized in two ways: a. chronologically, as a narrative b. thematically Why use case study? 1. Discovery and diagnosis: a preliminary step for new research What can a sample case reveal about a new topic? Can a sample case reveal how & why things happen? 2. Build theory: develop general idea based on one specific case Can one case provide insights that explain several other similar cases? 3. Test theory: develop or test concepts and explanations How well does a theory explain a real world case? Advantages Holistic or thorough understanding of a specific topic Relatively fast if the case is clearly defined Disadvantages Value of insights are questionable if the case is not representative of all similar cases; selecting an appropriate case is extremely important Considerations for selecting a case 1. Must reveal something about your subject 2. Set justifiable limits on data to be collected; e.g., what data are relevant; what data are irrelevant? 3. Relevant data must be accessible Examples Ulmer & Sellnow: case = Jack-in-the-Box PR during a crisis ○ Source = articles from the New York Times ○ Theory = stakeholder theory Hodson & Vannini: case = life on Gabriola Island ○ Source = interviews with islanders, observation of ferry commuters ○ Theory = symbolic interactionism Data preparation and organization Sort data chronologically or thematically most cases are organized and presented as narratives Example Multi-Bake Analysis/ draw insights Application of theory to case Test theory or build theory ○ Examples Ulmer & Sellnow: theory = stakeholder theory  ○ Hodson & Vannini: theory = symbolic interactionism Key Points: Case Study / Analysis Address most significant aspect of case Ensure analysis relies on relevant evidence Root analysis in existing knowledge, if possible During analysis, consider all major rival interpretations Draw inferences / insights Week 5 Content Analysis: Definition “a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.” The primary source for content analysis is always text Manifest (adj) describing something clear and obvious Content of communication (n) the message manifest Content (n) any plainly recognizable message such as words, pictures, symbols, gestures Organization and collection of research mass media – print, audio recordings, film & video fine arts – painting, sculpture, sheet music organ comm – pamphlets, memos, e-mail, reports interpersonal – conversations, letters, tweets, photos “Text” Generic term for all modes of expression “Author” Generic term for all types of creators Objective (adj) without personal bias, or free of subjective opinions Some researchers believe that no one can be fully objective. Systematic (adj) guided by pre-arranged method, which is mechanical, thorough, and not arbitrary Quantitative (adj) data is coded to facilitate measurement, or statistical understanding Content Analysis: Uses 1. Close analysis of an individual author Assumption: a pattern in a text (or set of texts) reveals something about the author 2. Explore latent meanings and intentions 3. Expose and document social and cultural trends Assumption a. We communicate using a common language b. This common language is shaped by our everyday use of it c. Although every text is produced by some individual, everyone must use the common language to be understood d. Hence, we can read each text as an artifact of the culture, not just an artifact of a specific individual 4. Investigate cultures and compare cultures Assumption: texts selected actually representative of whole society Latent content (n) meaning that is implied by a text, or is dormant in a text, but that is not manifest in the text 1. Define the research problem Have a clear claim regarding your topic 2. Review the literature – have other researchers addressed your claim? If so, what did they do? and what did they find? 3. Select appropriate research method Each method generates different kinds of data Fit your method to your thesis / question / hypothesis Your method must collect the data you require Week 6 4. Select appropriate medium Texts are produced in many media formats  If your claim addresses a specific medium or format, then you need to collect texts from that medium If your claim does not address a specific medium, then you may collect texts from any relevant source Select the medium that will provide the best texts for your research 5. Design a sampling strategy Ideally, look at all available texts the entire “population” or entire “universe” of texts Practically, use a fraction of all available texts a “sample” Assumption: the sample we select is representative of the entire universe or population Goals ○ i. ensure your sample is representative of the entire population ○ ii. minimize potential error in your sample Sampling strategy has five considerations 1. Time frame for the entire population of texts Select a time period relevant to your subject You should be able to justify this decision Example six week-long election campaign? Time frame should be the six weeks of the campaign 2. Frequency that new texts are generated How often are new texts available Helps you estimate size of entire population of texts If population is small, include all texts in your study If population is massive, create a sample 3. Anomalies in the medium Odd patterns or idiosyncrasies in the texts example commentaries on healthy eating (each item is one text) 4. Relevance: are all texts in a medium relevant to the research? If you understand the anomaly, you can control its affect on your sample What will you count? What will you ignore? and why? 5. Selection method How will you select individual texts? Be systematic, not arbitrary Random sample Every text has equal chance of being selected Suitable if there are no significant differences in the entire population of texts Systematic sample Texts selected according to some regular pattern Selects texts from throughout population Sampling strategy bottom line Your strategy should create a manageable set of texts A good strategy addresses all five considerations You must decide how to address all five considerations; you cannot be arbitrary You must justify each decision Your strategy will affect the sample you collect; you will never know what you did not collect Good research design is the best warrant for your research Week 6 Define the unit of analysis Unit of analysis “an entity that frames what is being analyzed” ○ Unit can be an individual text... or... some aspect of a individual text ○ Unit must have variables relevant to your analysis ○ Each variable must be quantifiable Example: Christenson et al. – alcohol & drugs in pop music ○ medium & text : pop music & lyrics ○ unit of analysis : song ○ variables : lyric references to alcohol and drugs Identifiers (variables that describe the text) Name of text Author Location and date Page numbers, time, placement? Analytical categories (variables relevant to your claim) Can be anything noteworthy that is conveyed by each text Examples: ○ words, numbers, symbols, expressions, gestures, sounds, pictures, ○ or aspects such as: size, age, colour, tone, theme, placement, gender. Coding (n) the process of converting qualitative data into generic codes (i.e., numbers or symbols). It’s how you take notes in content analysis.  Codes should facilitate counting, measurement, and statistical analysis Code book (n) a guide to the codes used in a research program; defines how each unit of analysis is interpreted and coded. If each unit is clearly defined and easily coded, your data should be trustworthy. ○ Example: opinion on use of force? 1 = favourable 2 = unfavourable 3 = neutral 4 = mixed opinion Numbers have two advantages over letters and words: ○ accelerated data entry; only enter single number ○ easier analysis with standard software Rules of Code book Always important, but particularly when ○ You study latent content ○ Texts are vague or ambiguous ○ There is more than one person coding ○ Other researchers want to replicate your study Create a coding schedule or coding form A schedule must list every variable you are examining in evert text you include in your study. For each variable, you should list every known possible answer. Week 8 Content Analysis so far 1. Define the research problem 2. Review the literature 3. Select research method 4. Select appropriate medium 5. Design a sampling strategy (five aspects) 6. Define unit of analysis and its variables 7. Create a code book 8. Create a coding schedule 9. Pilot your research design 10. Conduct the research Data preparation and analysis (11) A. Counting  B. Pattern recognition and sign posts Counting Tally data collected on coding schedules How frequently does each variable appear? More variables means more to count Frequency Number of times each item appears Pattern recognition and sign posts Patterns reveal trends in data (e.g., growth, stability, or decline) ○ A trend implies there is a logic to the data ○ We assume that the pattern is not random ○ If there is a pattern in the data, you may be able to explain the data ○ One variable may usually appear in conjunction with another... Sign posts mark individual moments in the data (e.g., start of trend, peak, lowest point, end of trend) Statistics Applied mathematics Find meaning in quantitative data In communication and cultural research, often integral to content analysis and surveys Often used to support other methods Allow us to make comparisons Numerical or quantitative data We use numbers to express many ideas ○ e.g., height, depth, mass, frequency, volume, speed, bandwidth, dates, age, value Statistics: qualifications Statistics are not self-evident facts They are sign posts or indicators  They are coded data that must be interpreted Qith every statistic ask: ○ what was counted? ○ what was not counted? ○ is the data warranted? ○ how should the statistic be interpreted? Week 8: Nominal Numbers assigned to categories to signify qualitative differences ○ Basically, nominal figures simply tell us that two things are different Generated by assigning numbers arbitrarily to categories They have no bearing to any scale: any number could be replaced by any other number or symbol ○ For exanomle a sports jersey number Ordinal Numbers assigned to categories based on a subjective scale without fixed intervals ○ Basically, ordinal figures tell us two things are different, and one is greater in some way based on personal opinion Generated by assigning numbers to categories using subjective considerations; e.g., personal taste ○ Examples – pop culture top 100 Interval Numbers assigned to categories based on a fixed scale with equal intervals between points ○ Basically, interval figures tell us two things are different, and one is greater in some way, and the difference is measurable Generated by measurement against a fixed scale Scale may be subjective or objective, but its intervals are known and fixed Examples – temperature: interval between 0ºC and 10ºC is exactly the same as the interval between 10ºC and 20ºC Ratio Numbers assigned to categories based on a fixed scale with equal intervals between points and a true zero point  ○ These are the most powerful numbers ratio figures tell us two things are different, and one is greater in some way, and the difference is real and measurable. Generated by counting or measuring using a fixed, objective scale with true zero point ○ Examples – age: starts at birth (the zero point) Data set or distribution Data = numbers; information gathered by measurement Set = all data related to single category or variable Univariate analysis Description of a single data set Frequency (n) number of observations for each category or variable, often expressed symbolically as “N” or “n” Range Complete array of observations in data set or distribution ○ Examples class marks = 58,61,62,63,64,66,67,67,68,68,70,72,74,75,75,77,78,80,85,90 range of marks = 58 to 90 Median Precise centre of the range (values do not matter!) Mean or average Precise centre of weighted observations (values do matter!) Standard deviation (S.D. or ó [lower case sigma]) average difference of each observation from the mean Low deviation  ○ Suggests your data cluster closely around your mean ○ The mean probably tell you something significant about the data set or distribution High deviation ○ Suggests your data are widely dispersed through your data set or distribution ○ The mean may not be significant; perhaps the full range of responses is more significant! Recap Week 9 Bivariate analysis Description of two distributions in relation to one another Ordered pair Two observations describing different aspects of the same unit of analysis; can be expressed as (x, y) Coefficient of correlation Indicates the extent to which ordered pairs share variance put another way It measures the relationship between two phenomena If x happens, does y happen? Correlation Requires two data for each unit of analysis re: (x,y) Coefficient of correlation or Pearson’s r “coefficient” = a measure of strength of correlation expressed as r = + z or – z  ○ Basically, the coefficient is a number that describes the pattern of correlation found in a scatter plot ○ The number can indicate if the pattern is … positive (x and y move in the same direction) negative (x and y move in opposite directions) ○ The value of the number indicates the strength of the pattern a pattern can be too weak to be significant! Statistics: Can do: ○ flag significant data, such as trends, highs, lows, averages ○ reveal patterns in texts, human behaviour ○ suggest relationship between things: correlation! ○ indicate strength of relationship between two things Can’t do: ○ provide explanations ○ You must provide the explanations! Week 9 Ethics The branch of knowledge or study dealing with moral principle Tri-Council Policy Statement [TCPS] (1998) Cardinal principle: respect for human dignity Three federal funding agencies ○ CIHR Canadian Institute of Health Research ○ NSERC National Science & Engineering Research Council ○ SSHRC Social Science & Humanities Research Council To obtain research grants from the federal government, an institution must have a Research Ethics Board to enforce the TCPS Research Ethics Board (REB)  Committee appointed by highest-ranking officer at university responsible for research Staffed by faculty and community members, along with graduate student representatives Members must represent a wide variety of disciplines and research backgrounds Aommunity members monitor integrity of university decisions Administers the TCPS at its institution TCPS2 (2014) Respect for persons (a.k.a. autonomy) Concern for welfare (a.k.a. beneficence) Justice, especially distribution of risk and benefits ○ Inform recruit of purpose, procedures, risks ○ Obtain participant’s informed consent ○ Protect vulnerable recruits and participants ○ Consider affect of research on participant’s life, in all aspects: body, mind, social, economic ○ Minimize all risks ○ Ensure benefits outweigh risks ○ Fully explain all risks to recruits REB: assessing risk Harm: any negative effect on welfare of participants Risk: magnitude of possible harm and probability it will occur Minimal risk: probability and magnitude of possible harms are no greater than participants face in everyday life REB: ensuring dignity Voluntary: consent each participant makes own informed choice to volunteer; no coercion Privacy: each participant’s data must be secured if so desired Confidentiality: only researcher knows the participants’ identities and can link individuals to their data Anonymity: no one can link any participant to any data Honesty: researcher cannot deceive recruits or participants Respectful publication: researcher must ○ share completed results with participants ○ consider impact of public release of data Ethical researchers fulfil their responsibilities  They follow the TCPS and understand its rationale They can articulate the benefits of their research They protect the rights of recruits and participants Week 10 Survey research: definition Broad-based, qualitative and/or quantitative research which collects data through pre-formulated questions in a structured questionnaire to a representative sample of individuals drawn from a defined population. Main advantage: large number of participants ○ Responses can be recorded verbatim or coded for statistical analysis Intangible Something that cannot be precisely measured or assessed Beliefs, values, attitudes, articles of faith, motives, tastes, desires, passions Survey research: uses 1. To research intangibles 2. To research behaviours or use of material objects examples New or rapidly changing technology Very fast-moving trends ○ Example: projecting future internet use what do we need to know? Tangibles – devices like cell phones / modems. Intangibles – reasons / motives / incentives Major assumption: ○ I. a sample is representative of the entire population ○ ii. the intangible qualities or behaviours of the sample are representative of entire population ○ iii. knowing something about sample tells us something about entire populatio 3. Organizational studies provides view of organization from the perspective of employees rather than management Survey can ensure anonymity, and gather confidential responses from people concerned about speaking truthfully Survey research: advantages 1. Contact period with each participant is brief speed – faster than focus groups 2. Can be conducted by assistants speed – faster than focus groups  cost – less expensive 3. Can fit method to participants and their convenience access – easier to recruit volunteers Survey research: disadvantages 1. Less data per participant Reliability – data may be superficial, inconclusive versus interviews, focus groups 2. Static data or “snapshot” lack of historical perspective on trends (a danger with all methods) Identify research ethics concerns i. ethical considerations – do not place your participants at undue risk ii. propriety and modesty – treat your participants with dignity and respect Design your sample strategy Sample frame precise group who can be recruited They must be relevant to the survey subject Remember: all frames exclude someone example Ways to set sample frame 1. Acquire list of entire population, then recruit from list 2. Recruit through common activity, medium, or location 3. Two-stage sampling a. Create list from common activity, medium, or location b. Recruit from list What do we want in a frame? 1. Comprehensiveness representative of the entire population 2. Efficiency reduce unnecessary participants to a minimum 3. Known probability of selection should know estimated size of entire population should know each individual’s chance of selection e.g., 1 in 100 chance?... 1 in 2,000?.. Survey Research so far 1. Define the research problem 2. Review the literature 3. elect research method 4. Identify research ethics concerns 5. Design your sample strategy a. sample frame b. selection method Selection method (the way you identify actual recruits) Understand the population to be studied Have a sample frame that can provide representatives of that population ○ i. random sampling entire sample frame has equal chance of selection examples: spectators at a stadium Random number generator to pick seat numbers First 100 people through each gate ○ ii. systematic sampling know size of entire sample frame, then identify recruits based on a fixed interval Ensures recruits are drawn from entire frame, and not any one cluster example: recruit participants from every tenth seat in stadium ○ iii. stratified sampling can improve representativeness Know relevant characteristics of entire frame Then, create quotas for each relevant characteristic One stratum for each relevant characteristic (e.g., age, language, religion, fandom, favourite vegetable?) Strata should match your analytical categories Avoid unnecessary categories; don’t waste time collecting irrelevant dat (more categories = more strata = more complex samples) Quota: share that each group should contribute to total sample Sample size considerations Nature of research question Number of analytical categories / strata ○ Example Johnston & Ripmeester (2012) five strata = age, gender, occupation, ethnicity, home town Recruit participants from pedestrians on downtown streets End of each day, tally participants in all five categories Next day, seek additional participants to meet quotas Tokenism Making perfunctory or symbolic effort; E.g., recruiting small number of people from under-represented group to give appearance of equality Confidence and Error level Probability of error in the sample Margin of error: each score may be wrong by +/– x% Researchers generally accept a confidence level of 95%; that is, a sample is correct 19 times out of 20 and each score may be out by +/-5% Tt is impossible to reach 100% confidence with any sample unless you survey the entire population Setting and timing Location of response can affect data collected Timing of response can affect data collected considerations: ○ Comfort of participants ○ How the survey is conveyed ○ Distractions... all of these can involve ethical concerns Recap: Design your sample strategy a) Sample frame precise population of people who can be recruited b) Selection method means used to identify actual recruits to create a sample c) Sample size consider population size, units of analysis; avoid tokenism d) Setting and timing consider the disposition of your participants when they are responding justify your decision Week 11 Draft a questionnaire questionnaire A pre-determined list of questions answered by each participant Brevity is important Typically, identifier questions first Analytical questions follow ○ Closed questions: list all possible answers Allows respondents to self-code their responses using standard concepts and terminology ○ Open questions: leave blank space for participant to Likert scale ordinal or interval scale Forces respondents to self-code/standardize own responses Especially useful for qualitative data (e.g., opinions) ○ "always," "often," and "sometimes" Data coded quickly Once coded, data is ready for statistical analysis Why use open questions? They do not “lead” participants by suggesting predicted answers Collect qualitative data Provide answers in participant’s own words; get new or surprising insights but … Time consuming to record and process Must interpret each answer individual Order of questions be cautious! Do not “lead” respondents toward specific responses; this will undermine the integrity of the data Possible solutions: ○ a) arrange questions in 2 or more ways; you may reduce or gauge effect of “order bias” ○ b) ask same question at different points in survey to gauge respondent’s consistency Pilot your questionnaire Test your research design on a small sample of people to see what happens Collect data Use your sampling method and your questionnaire, obviously Data preparation and analysis Organize responses in most appropriate way ○ Count responses, as in content analysis ○ Group data into themes, as in history, policy, & case analysis ○ Create a time line, as in historical analysis ○ Look for signposts and patterns ○ Explain what you find Week 11 Interviews & Focus Groups: Definitions intensive, qualitative research methods which generate data through directed social interaction. Interviews Question an individual or group with expertise or experience regarding your subject Focus groups  Foster discussion among groups of people with expertise or experience regarding your subject Interviews & Focus Groups: Uses 1. Research intangibles Intangibles = beliefs, values, attitudes, articles of faith, motives, desires, or passions a.k.a. personal & cultural traits 2. In-depth study of a particular individual or group 3. a) Sample common practice / popular opinion with interviews b) Sample common practice / popular opinion with focus groups Major assumption selected individuals are representative of entire population Advantages 1. Interviews and focus groups primary data! 2. a) Focus groups over interviews cost/time - work with several participants at a time Reliability - roup discussion may foster more comfortable environment for participants to share their thoughts b) Focus groups over surveys / observation Faster – fixed, brief time-span Cost – little time spent in the field; perhaps none Access – fewer volunteers; easier to recruit Disadvantage 1. Interviews and focus groups lack of historical perspective “snapshot” impression Identify research ethics concerns Treatment of human subjects ○ i. propriety and modesty – treat your participants with dignity and respect ○ ii. ethical considerations – do not place your participants at any risk? Design your sample strategy a) Sample frame (e.g., list of names, common activity, location) b) Sampling strategy (e.g., random, systematic, stratified) you must have some understanding of the entire population to create a representative sample method should match complexity of population and claim c) Sample size i) interviews: recruit as many participants as required  ii) Focus groups: 6 to 10 people per group is optimal – how many groups are required? Simple exploration of topic or ideas = 1 to 3 groups Major research study = 10 to 15 groups minimum d) Setting and timing location can affect quality of data consider: Ethical issues Comfort of participants Distractions Sampling: Random (or simple random) - all individuals in sample frame have equal chance to participate Snowball (variation of simple random) - first individuals recruited from sample frame; then all participants invited to recruit additional participants Systematic - individuals selected from throughout the sample frame Stratified - individuals selected from sample frame to fill quotas Explain your analysis a) Specific sources and location used b) Mode of interpretation as always, justify your research decisions Draft an interview guide Interview guide: pre-determined list of topics and questions to be addressed during interview; resembles questionnaire for surveys ○ Identifier categories first ○ Analytical questions follow ○ Set time permitted for each question (e.g., 30 seconds? 15 minutes?) Recruit participants If using focus groups, use your sampling strategy Collect data use your interview guide Data preparation and analysis Organize answers in most appropriate way ○ Group data into themes, as in historical / policy analysis ○ Create time line, as in historical / case analysis ○ Count responses, as in content analysis / surveys Look for signposts and patterns – explain the patterns Interview & Focus Group Research RECAP! 1. Define the research problem 2. Review the literature 3. Select research method 4. Identify research ethics concerns 5. Design your sample strategy a. sample frame b. sampling strategy c. sample size i. interviews: as many as required ii. focus groups: consider size / number d. setting and timing 6. Explain your analysis (perspective / theory?) 7. Draft an interview guide 8. Recruit participants 9. Collect data 10. Data preparation and analysis Week 12 Observation research definitions “... a combination of a first-person and a secondperson account, which takes place in a naturalistic setting, of the actions and behaviours of a specific group of people.” From the textbook, “A data collection method that involves watching and learning about research participants while the researcher participates in their daily activities.” Most common form in communication and cultural studies is participant observation Qualitative research Observation Research: Uses 1. Examine structure and/or functions of social formation Learn components and operations from inside example news rooms Functionalist study social formation as unit with single purpose How do they assemble the news? what stories get covered, and why? 2. Examine culture of social formation Interpretivist or critical study social formation as individuals cooperating to achieve common goals Learn cultural or ideological aspects a.k.a. “ethnography”  Example culture of news rooms – all have the same tasks, so how and why do they differ? 3. Examine how structures affect outcomes Watch how product is created, from start to finish example Functionalist or critical study social formation as a process; what does it produce... and how? Observation Research: Advantages 1. Primary data – similar to interviews & focus groups Reliability – data collected from actual social formation 2. Primary data – better than nterviews & focus groups extraordinarily rich source of data Everything you observe, hear, smell, touch, taste is data Reliability – difficult to fake, highly detailed Disadvantages 1. Reliability – potentially fewer sources poorly selected formation may provide poor or idiosyncratic data 2. Time / cost – cannot be done quickly best conducted by lead researcher with expertise 3. Access / ethics – cannot be used with all formations e.g., unwilling or “at risk” populations Week 12 Identify research ethics concerns treatment of human subjects 1. Ethical considerations – do not place your participants at any risk 2. Propriety and modesty – treat your participants with dignity and respect 5.1 Design your research program a) Focus of study / unit of analysis Whole organization? / distinct departments or offices? Culture of organization? / individual members? Systems & processes? / how outcomes are completed? Specific things to observe to answer your question Should be clear from your research question Be realistic: seek achievable data b) Time frame Every social formation has a rhythm or schedule Select best time period to conduct research  Consider specific days, weeks, months, seasons in relation to your research c) Duration Every social formation has rhythm or schedule Select length of time to stay in field Balance your need for data against their patience What is a representative sample of time? Is every day similar? or is change constant? What is the production cycle? ○ Random, hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, seasonal? d) Level of participation Neutral observer or full participant? ○ i. don’t alter conditions you want to study ○ ii. don’t alter participants’ normal behaviour Considerations your gender, ethnicity, age your appearance, demeanour, manner of speaking your goals as a researcher anything else that might affect participants 5.2 Select your social formation a) Representativeness if studying a general phenomenon, the selected social formation must be representative of entire population Major assumption: that the selected social formation is representative of all similar formations. b) Access many social formations have no desire to be researched. if you have one recruiting pitch... make it count! Be smart and realistic Be prepare c) Informed consent of participants is required written consent, if possible informed Participant understands study written Participant receives details in writing; signs & returns form to permit research Ideally, pursue 5.1 and 5.2 simultaneously may need to alternate between them Week 13 Establish your interpretive context a) Specific research method and sources used b) Mode of interpretation Develop field relationships If possible, do not leap into research on first day Acclimatize yourself to the social formation Acclimatize participants to your presence Don’t make things weird or awkward! Data preparation and analysis a) Data preparation chronologically how did events occur in social formation? thematically what issues arose in social formation? b) Analysis Search for signposts and patterns Explain why signposts and patterns occur Apply interpretive framework to data Prepare and analyze data at end of each day Allow yourself to be surprised; adjust to new ideas or questions Especially true if duration in field is limited Observation Research 1. Define the research problem 2. Review the literature 3. Select research method 4. Identify research ethics concerns 5. 5.1 Design your research program a. focus of study / unit of analysis b. time frame c. duration d. level of participation 6. 5.2 Select your social formation a. representativeness b. access c. informed consent 7. Devlope field relationships 8. Collect data 9. Data preparation and analysis