COMM 139 Midterm Study Guide PDF

TOPICS ​ Definition of emotion (shared components of emotions) ○​ Definition: internal, mental states representing evaluative reactions to events, agents, or objects that vary in intensity ○​ They are generally short-lived, intense, directed at some external stimuli...

TOPICS ​ Definition of emotion (shared components of emotions) ○​ Definition: internal, mental states representing evaluative reactions to events, agents, or objects that vary in intensity ○​ They are generally short-lived, intense, directed at some external stimuli ○​ Different from moods, which set the stage for emotions ○​ Associated with reactions and behaviors ○​ Components: ​ Cognitive appraisal or evaluation of a situation ​ Physiological component of arousal ​ A subjective feeling state ​ Action tendency ​ Motor expression/behavior ​ Object or target ​ Types of emotion theories (sensation/physiological, behavioral, evaluative, cognitive) ○​ Sensation/physiological: concerned with how people experience emotions (like what they feel, e.g., arousal) ○​ Behavioral: not about what one is feeling, but their actions (what we see, e.g., facial expressions) ○​ Evaluative: the connection between emotions and evaluative beliefs (e.g., affect as information) – essentially our emotions provide valuable information about how we view and interpret situations (if something feels good or aligns with our goals, one experiences positive emotions) ○​ Cognitive: emotions arise from beliefs or thoughts about the environment (e.g., appraisal theories) – essentially, we experience emotions based on how we interpret or appraise events (our emotions arise after we assess or judge its significance to our well-being) ​ Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory ○​ This is Lazarus’ theory, whose key question is “How do we adapt to or cope with our environments? ○​ The key assumption is that emotions arise from appraisals (evaluations) of our interactions with the world ○​ The key principles include: cognitive appraisals (evaluative thoughts) and the “core relational theme”, which is the relationship between a person and their environment based on appraisals. Finally, there is action tendency. ○​ 2 levels of appraisal: ​ Primary = appraisal of goals ​ Goal relevance – you’re going to feel an emotion or not ​ Goal congruence – starts to separate from positive or negative states  ​ Thoughts always come before emotions ​ Type of ego-involvement ○​ How does whatever is happening relate to some sense of who you are (identity-wise, moral values, beliefs, overall how you see yourself in the world, etc.) ​ *all of these are related to goals* ​ Secondary = appraisal of coping ​ Blame or credit ○​ Negative emotions = blame; positive emotions = credit ○​ There is no blame with fear even though it is negative ​ Coping potential ○​ How well do you think you can handle/deal with the situation ○​ We can’t cope well with fear ​ Future expectation ○​ What do we imagine is likely to happen ○​ With fear, we don’t know what is going to happen ○​ Essentially, emotions arise from how we evaluate our interactions with the world, particularly regarding our goals and how we perceive our ability to cope with challenges. There are two levels of appraisal: primary, where we assess whether a situation affects our goals (and whether it's good or bad), and secondary, where we evaluate how well we can cope with it. Our emotional responses are shaped by how we connect situations to our identity, beliefs, and expectations for the future. ​ Script Theory ○​ The key question: How do emotion components interact? ○​ Key assumptions: ​ Emotion is a primary biological motivating mechanism ​ Components, in working together, amplify emotional experience which tells us what matters – amplification ○​ Key principle: ​ Scripts (emotional habits embedded in cognitive structures) ​ Suggests that when you get strong signals, they get attached to the situation, person, or event, and then get embedded in that script ○​ Essentially, emotions are a key driving force behind our behavior and motivation. When we experience strong emotions in a situation, those emotions become linked to that event and form scripts—patterns of emotional responses that shape how we interpret and react to similar situations in the future. These emotional habits help us determine what matters and guide our future behavior. ​ Communicative Theory ○​ Key question: how are goal priorities assigned?  ○​ Key assumptions: ​ Emotions communicate both to ourselves and others about goal priorities ​ Emotions based on cognitive evaluations (either conscious or unconscious) ○​ Key principle: mental models ​ It’s about the thought process; how we can think in dynamic ways that cause emotions that lead us to make decisions ​ It’s a way you can think through and anticipate how a situation may play out ○​ Essentially, emotions help us communicate our priorities both to ourselves and to others. Our emotions are based on cognitive evaluations, whether we are aware of them or not, and they shape how we think through situations. Using mental models, we anticipate outcomes, make decisions, and adjust our behavior based on how we expect events to unfold. ​ Fridja’s Laws of Emotions ○​ Summarizes rules governing emotions: ​ Elicitation (laws 1-4) ​ How are emotions elicited ​ Persistence (laws 5-8) ​ Why do emotions persist after the event has passed ​ Regulation (laws 9-12) ​ How do we regulate/manage our emotional experiences ○​ 1) Situational meaning ​ Emotions based on meaning structures which are connected to action readiness ○​ 2) Concern: ​ Emotions arise based on relevant events ○​ 3) Apparent reality: ​ Emotions are elicited by events appraised as real ○​ 4) Change: ​ Emotions respond to actual or expected changes in conditions (not by the presence of favorable or unfavorable conditions) ○​ 5) Habituation: ​ Continued pleasures and hardships “wear off” ○​ 6) Comparative feeling: ​ Emotional intensity depends on the relationship between the event and some frame of reference ○​ 7) Hedonic asymmetry: ​ Pleasure based on change; disappears with continuous satisfaction. Pain persists under persisting adverse conditions  ○​ 8) Conservation of emotional momentum: ​ Emotional events can always evoke that emotion unless counteracted with repetitive exposure ○​ 9) Closure: ​ Emotions tend to be absolute (not relative in impact) and take control of the action system ​ There is no middle ground/in-between ○​ 10) Care for consequences: ​ Emotional impulses are associated with impulses to control the emotion to avoid negative consequences ○​ 11) Lightest load: ​ When possible, tend to view situations in a way that minimizes negative emotional load ○​ 12) Greatest gain: ​ When possible, tend to view situations in a way that maximizes emotional gain ○​ Essentially, it explains how emotions arise, persist, and are regulated. Elicitation laws explain that emotions are triggered by meaningful events we perceive as real and relevant to our concerns. Persistence laws describe why emotions linger, such as through habituation (pleasure fades, but pain lasts) or emotional momentum (past events can still trigger feelings). Regulation laws explain how we manage emotions, like trying to minimize negative feelings (lightest load) or maximize positive ones (greatest gain). These laws help explain why emotions feel automatic and powerful in shaping our behavior. ​ Emotional Processes in the Brain (how we experience and become aware of emotion) ○​ Our brain experiences emotions through a series of steps, including detecting, interpreting, and regulating feelings. This process helps us understand what we are feeling and how to respond to different situations. ​ Brain Structures Associated with Emotional Experience ○​ Amygdala – Processes emotion-related memories. ○​ Hippocampus – Stores situational memory. ○​ Thalamus – Sensory relay center. (“brain translator”) ○​ Prefrontal Cortex – part of the frontal lobe (the “thinking part”) / Regulates emotions (left = approach emotions, right = withdrawal emotions). ○​ Different brain regions play specific roles in processing emotions, such as the amygdala for fear, the prefrontal cortex for regulation, and the hippocampus for linking emotions with memories. These structures work together to shape how we feel and react to emotional experiences. ​ Emotional Hijacking ○​ Sensory information is filtered through the amygdala via the thalamus  ○​ If triggered → fight or flight response ​ “Emotional hijacking” ○​ The prefrontal cortex (left) can dampen the response ○​ Emotional hijacking occurs when intense emotions, like fear or anger, take over rational thinking, leading to impulsive reactions. This happens because the brain’s amygdala responds to threats before the rational prefrontal cortex can process the situation, causing us to act based on emotion rather than logic. ​ Somatic Marker Hypothesis ○​ When considering the situational response, visceral and non-visceral sensation tells you to continue considering it or not ○​ Positive and negative markers: develop… ​ Based on experience, learning ​ Not always conscious (intuition) ○​ “As If” loop: allows the benefit of somatic markers without actual physical experience ○​ Somatic markers… ​ Quickly reduce decision options ​ Increases accuracy and efficiency of the decision-making process ​ Not always accurate ○​ Essentially, it suggests that our bodily sensations (like gut feelings) help guide decision-making by signaling whether a choice is good or bad based on past experiences. These markers, which can be conscious or unconscious, help us quickly narrow down options and make decisions more efficiently, though they aren’t always accurate. ​ Relationship between reasoned decision-making and emotion (Damasio) ○​ Damasio: feelings are essential for rational decisions because emotional learning helps, is determine what are good vs. bad choices ​ Brain hemispheric specialization, affective style, and temperament ○​ Left PFC – Approach emotions. ○​ Right PFC – Withdrawal emotions. ○​ Shyness (Kagan’s research) – Behavioral inhibition linked to right hemisphere activity. ○​ Brain hemispheric specialization refers to how different sides of the brain are linked to specific emotional tendencies. Affective style describes an individual's habitual way of experiencing and expressing emotions, influenced by brain activity. Temperament is an early-emerging, biologically based tendency to react to the world in certain ways, such as shyness or boldness, which is also shaped by hemispheric differences in brain activation. ​ Distinctiveness of facial expressions of emotion  ○​ Facial expressions are a prominent nonverbal channel that provides insight into specific emotions. ○​ Some emotions, like disgust, sadness, and happiness, have universally recognized facial expressions. ○​ Studies of blind individuals and cross-cultural research suggest facial expressions are innate rather than learned. ○​ Research on blind vs. sighted Olympic athletes shows spontaneous emotional expressions are the same, supporting a biological basis. ​ Evidence for biological basis of facial expressions of emotion ○​ Studies of newborns and infants show they make emotional expressions without being taught, suggesting an innate origin. ○​ Research on animals indicates similarities in expressions across species. ○​ Cross-cultural studies, such as those in Papua New Guinea, show that people from isolated societies still recognize and produce the same facial expressions. ○​ The ability to express emotion through facial expressions is not dependent on visual learning, as seen in studies of blind individuals. ​ Facial feedback hypothesis ○​ We subconsciously get information from our own facial expressions that impacts our emotional experience. ​ Self-perception theory ○​ People make conscious judgments about their feelings from observing their own behaviors ​ Mayer & Salovey’s 4 branches of emotional intelligence ○​ 1) Emotion perception and identification ​ Capacity to perceive (or recognize) and express feelings in self; perceive in others as well ○​ 2) Emotional Facilitation/Integration ​ Use emotion to improve thought processes (just the thought) ○​ 3) Emotional Understanding ​ Cognitive processing of emotion (i.e., understanding causes, process, and consequences of emotions in self and others) ○​ 4) Emotional Management ​ Regulation of emotional processes in both self and others ​ Benefits of emotional intelligence (EI) ○​ Relates to greater: ​ Optimism ​ Impulse control and self-efficacy ​ Sense of well-being ​ Relational satisfaction ​ Work achievement ​ Alexithymia and its effects on communication ○​ Definition: ​ Difficulty identifying, describing, and expressing emotions ("no words for feelings"). ​ Tendency to focus on external details rather than internal emotional states. ​ Causes & Origins: ○​ Can be a personality trait with a genetic predisposition. ○​ Linked to weak connections between the limbic system (emotion) and neocortex (reasoning). ○​ Can develop due to early childhood experiences, lack of emotional modeling by caregivers, trauma, or brain injury. ​ Effects on Mental & Physical Health: ○​ Associated with psychosomatic illnesses, depression, PTSD, eating disorders, and substance abuse. ​ Effects on Relationships & Communication: ○​ Struggles with emotional expression and empathy. ○​ Can appear distant, cold, or nonassertive in social interactions. ○​ Leads to lower relational closeness, satisfaction, and difficulties in intimate connections. ​ Empathy vs Sympathy ○​ Empathy – the ability to perceive the subjective experience of another person and feel what they feel ○​ Sympathy – to feel for another’s situation without sharing that other person’s feeling ​ Attunement & Mirroring ○​ Attunement – process in which a person sees their emotions are met with empathy, accepted, and reciprocated ○​ Mirroring – reflection of others’ emotions without experiencing them ​ Emotional contagion ○​ Tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize facial expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements with those of another person and, consequently, to converge emotionally ○​ Factors that influence susceptibility to and likelihood to start EC ​ People who: can read others’ emotions, and interrelated self-construals, tend to mimic, are aware of their own emotional responses, and are emotionally reactive ​ Methods of emotion management ○​ 1) Manage eliciting events ​ Avoid or expose yourself to events that you expect will arouse various emotions  ○​ 2) Manage appraisals ​ Change how you think about or appraise emotion-eliciting events ○​ 3) Manage physiological reactions/behaviors ○​ 4) Manage expression ​ Display rules ○​ 5) Manage through social interactions ○​ When don't we manage our emotions? ​ 1) want to express true emotion ​ 2) can’t manage them ​ Appraisal patterns, core relational themes, and action tendencies of discrete emotions ○​ Core relational themes ​ Fear/fright: imminent physical harm ​ Anxiety: uncertain, existential threat ○​ Appraisal patterns: ​ Both have: ​ Goal relevance ​ Goal incongruence ​ No blame ​ Uncertain coping potential ​ Uncertain future expectancy ​ Differ in ego-involvement ​ Fear: no ego-involvement ​ Anxiety: protection of personal meaning against existential threat ○​ Action tendencies: ​ Fear: avoid danger ​ Anxiety: avoid – but what? ​ Fear vs Anxiety ○​ Fear = Immediate, physical threat. ○​ Anxiety = Uncertain, existential threat. ​ Social Anxiety ○​ Feelings of nervousness, self-consciousness, uncertainty, and dread experienced before and during encounters with other people ○​ Categories of social anxiety ​ Public performance ​ Informal interactions ​ Interactions requiring assertive behavior ​ Observation of behavior ○​ Cognitions associated with social anxiety ​ Apprehensive thoughts  ​ Somatic symptoms ​ “Nervous” behaviors ​ Verbal dysfluencies ​ Less effective communication ​ Attempt to avoid or escape ​ Relationship between frustration, anger, and aggression ○​ Frustration – Blocked goals leading to arousal. ○​ Anger – Emotional response to frustration. ○​ Aggression – Behavioral manifestation of anger. ○​ Situations where frustration may or may not turn into anger and why ​ Likely to cause anger – If act is unjustified, intentional, avoidable. ​ Less likely to cause anger – If perceived as accidental or unavoidable. ​ Anger expression – effects on communication ○​ Worse communication ○​ Feelings of distance ○​ Greater physiological arousal ○​ Feeling terrible, lowered self-esteem ○​ Make problem worse ○​ Rehearsing anger ○​ Becoming a hostile person ○​ Making the target angry at you