U.S. Foreign Policy Lecture Notes PDF

Lecture 3 2024-09-24 7:05 PM U.S. foreign policy originated with the American War of Independence (1775-83) against Great Britain. Benjamin Franklin negotiated America’s first treaty, the Treaty with France (1778). The French promised to aid the 13 colonies in their struggle for in...

Lecture 3 2024-09-24 7:05 PM U.S. foreign policy originated with the American War of Independence (1775-83) against Great Britain. Benjamin Franklin negotiated America’s first treaty, the Treaty with France (1778). The French promised to aid the 13 colonies in their struggle for independence while the colonies would support French interests. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris (1783) which recognized American independence. The Articles of Confederation (1781) created a very weak American confederation which began to implode. The United States of America was born with the adoption of the United States Constitution (1789). U.S. States and Territories (1789) Source: Golbez (Wikipedia) U.S. Capitals: 1789-90: New York City 1790-1800: Philadelphia May-Nov. 1800: New York City Nov. 1800-Present: Washington DC Sept. 1814: Leesburg VA After independence, American foreign policy prioritized the protection of trade relations with Britain and the expansion of trade with other European states. In 1791, Britain accounted for: ○ 90 percent of all American imports. ○ 50 percent of all American exports. The French Revolution began in 1789, and France declared war on Britain in 1793. Americans were divided due to the Treaty with France and trade dependency on Britain. President George Washington issued the Neutrality Proclamation (1793) whereby the U.S. would remain out of European wars but trade with all sides. An isolationist foreign policy was born. The British were displeased with the growing U.S.-France trade relations and seized more than 250 U.S. merchant ships trading with the French West Indies. John Jay led a mission to Britain which produced the Jay Treaty (1794) and lowered tensions, but Britain never renounced its right to seize ships that traded with its enemies. France had a similar naval policy, and by 1798 had captured hundreds of American merchant ships. Under President John Adams, the U.S. fought an undeclared naval war with France (1798-1800). The Treaty with France was terminated in 1800. After Spain ceded the Louisiana Territory to France in 1801, President Thomas Jefferson became concerned about Napoleon’s intentions. The U.S. offered to purchase New Orleans and Spanish Florida for $10 million. Napoleon sold the entire Louisiana Territory to the U.S. for $15 million in 1803. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the U.S. territory and extended it from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Spain was pressured to cede Florida and the Pacific Northwest to the U.S. in 1821. The U.S. fought the undeclared Barbary Wars (1801-05; 1815) against the Barbary states of North Africa who were capturing U.S. ships and holding their crews for ransom. There were tensions with Britain and France over their practice of impressment: stopping foreign ships to search for deserters. In 1807, the U.S. almost went to war with Britain over impressment of 3 American sailors who were ultimately released. In 1812, President James Madison urged Congress to declare war on Britain. The U.S. invaded the British territory of Canada but was unable to annex it during the War of 1812 (1812-15). There was no clear victor and no change in borders. American-British relations improved between the 1810s and 1840s as several disputes were resolved through agreements on trade, fisheries, and delineation of the U.S.-Canada border. The Monroe Doctrine (1823) declared that further efforts by European countries to colonize or interfere with states in the Americas would be viewed as acts of aggression requiring U.S. intervention. But the navally-weak U.S. relied on Britain to enforce the Monroe Doctrine while ignoring increased British colonialism in the Americas. ○ America said they would take care of security in Western hemisphere The independent Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845. The Mexican-American War (1846-48) led to the forced annexation of Northern Mexico (now the Southwestern U.S.) for $15 million. Mexican Cession (1848) Source: Kballen (Wikipedia) By the 1850s, manifest destiny and territorial expansion were out of fashion in the U.S. East and North. Southern states supported U.S. expansion into the Caribbean and Latin America to make slave-holding states a majority in the U.S. Several presidents attempted to purchase Cuba from Spain, but Spain resisted due to fears about British and French opposition. After Abraham Lincoln was elected U.S. President in November 1860 on a platform of ending slavery, eleven Southern states seceded in 1861 and formed the Confederate States of America. Britain and other European states recognized the Confederacy’s belligerency but not its independence. Britain remained neutral but tensions increased with the U.S. over British construction of Confederate ships and the Trent Affair (1861) when the U.S. Navy boarded a British ship to capture two Confederate diplomats. The American Civil War (1861-65) resulted in a victory for the Union and the end of slavery in the U.S., but at the cost of an estimated 625,000-850,000 people killed. Lecture 4 2024-09-24 7:25 PM Following the Civil War, the U.S. concentrated on territorial acquisitions. The expansionist William Seward served as Secretary of State (1861-69) during the presidencies of Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson. Seward attempted to purchase the Danish West Indies (1865) and the main port of the Dominican Republic (1866) without success. The U.S. purchased Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million in 1867. It became the 49th state in 1959. The U.S. claimed the Midway Islands in the Pacific in 1867. In 1889, the Ulysses Grant administration negotiated two treaties with the Dominican Republic which failed. Under the first treaty, the U.S. would annex the D.R. and assume its debt. The Senate never ratified it. Under the second treaty, the U.S. would purchase the main D.R. port for $2 million. The Senate never voted on this. U.S. foreign trade grew considerably after the Civil War. By 1900, the U.S. had bypassed Britain as the global leader in manufacturing. The U.S. engaged in a massive naval build-up, becoming the seventh-largest naval power by 1893. The need to establish coaling stations around the world encouraged territorial acquisitions. In 1875, a U.S.-Hawaii treaty lifted tariffs on Hawaiian sugar exports as long as Hawaii refused trade concessions to other countries. After Congress changed the sugar laws to give preference to domestic producers in 1890, Americans controlling the Hawaiian sugar industry revolted in 1893 so that Hawaii could be annexed. President Grover Cleveland opposed annexation by force. The U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898. It became the 50th state in 1959. In 1889, Britain, Germany, and the U.S. divided the Samoan islands into three. American Samoa was created. In 1917, the Danish West Indies were purchased by the U.S. and became the U.S. Virgin Islands. American gunboat diplomacy was used frequently in Latin America. By the mid-1890s, U.S. foreign policy was controlled by imperialists who believed in the ‘white man’s burden’: the idea that white people had the responsibility to civilize, educate, and spread Christianity to non-white peoples. In 1895, the U.S. claimed that Britain violated the Monroe Doctrine by sending troops to Nicaragua and intervening in a territorial dispute between British Guiana and Venezuela. Secretary of State Richard Olney delivered the Olney Memorandum, declaring that all states in the Americas were U.S. allies and that the U.S. was the undisputed sovereign power in the Americas. When Britain declared that the Monroe Doctrine did not apply, the Venezuelan Crisis resulted. Neither Britain nor the U.S. wanted war, so they established a commission to settle the crisis. The commission ruled in Venezuela’s favour in 1899. In 1895, American property was destroyed during the Cuban revolution against Spain. President Cleveland's demands for Cuban autonomy were unsuccessful. In February 1898, the USS Maine blew up and sank in Havana harbour. Americans accused the Spaniards of sabotage. When the Spaniards refused President William McKinley’s calls for U.S. arbitration of the conflict and Cuban independence, the Spanish-American War (1898) began. The war ended with nominal Cuban independence and the transfer of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the U.S. for $20 million. In 1899, the Philippines began an armed struggle for independence. By the time the U.S. regained control in 1902, 5,000 U.S. soldiers and 200,000 Filipinos had been killed. Sporadic guerrilla warfare continued until 1914. In response to the imperial division of China into European and Japanese enclaves, the U.S. proclaimed an Open Door policy in 1899, enabling all countries to trade in all enclaves. In 1900, the U.S. sent 2,500 troops as part of a Western intervention to halt the Boxer Rebellion by a secret society (the Boxers) which attacked Western interests to restore Chinese control. The U.S. intervened frequently in the Caribbean region due to massive American investments there (referred to as ‘dollar diplomacy’). After Germany and Britain attacked Venezuela over unpaid debts in 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt announced the Roosevelt Corollary (1904): the U.S. was responsible for ensuring that order and obligations were maintained in the Western Hemisphere. In 1901, the U.S. Senate passed the Platt Amendment, giving the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuba whenever life, property, and liberty were threatened. The Platt Amendment was added to the Cuban constitution in 1901 and became a U.S.-Cuba treaty in 1903. The U.S. also obtained a perpetual grant of land to build the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. In 1903, after Colombia refused to grant permission for the U.S. to construct a canal, Americans and Panamanians fomented a revolution, which led to the independence of Panama. The Panama Canal was constructed between 1904 and 1914. The Mexican Revolution erupted in 1910. In 1914, several American sailors were arrested in Tampico but later released with a Mexican apology. When the Mexicans refused American demands for a 21-gun salute, President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress for authorization to attack Mexico. The U.S. invaded Tampico and Veracruz and only departed after the Victoriano Huerta government collapsed. Due to German influence, Pancho Villa attacked Columbus, New Mexico in March 1916, killing 17 Americans. For nearly one year, the Mexican Punitive Expedition pursued Pancho Villa but never captured him. The U.S. only recognized the Mexican revolutionary government in 1917 after it appeared that Germany was cultivating an alliance with Mexico and promising to help them regain their territory lost during the Mexican- American War.  Week 2 (lec 3, 4) 2024-10-01 9:58 AM Detailed Notes on Foreign Policy in the Early Republic Overview Context: Following the Treaty of Paris (1783), the U.S. emerged as an independent nation but faced numerous foreign policy crises. Domestic Political Divides: ○ Federalists (led by Alexander Hamilton) favored ties with England. ○ Democratic-Republicans (led by Thomas Jefferson) preferred France. Impact of European Wars: The ongoing conflicts between Britain and France complicated U.S. foreign policy until the War of 1812 concluded in 1815. Washington’s Administration and Early Foreign Policy Hamilton’s Vision: ○ Advocated for a mercantile economy with strong trading ties to England. ○ England was the U.S.'s main trading partner by the 1790s. Jefferson’s Vision: ○ Admired France for its role in the American Revolution. ○ Believed the U.S. had an obligation to support France due to their 1778 alliance and aid in the war for independence. The French Revolution (1789): ○ Jefferson saw it as a continuation of the American Revolution, but Washington and Adams viewed it as chaotic. ○ The collapse of the French monarchy (1792) and the war between France and England created a diplomatic challenge for the U.S. The Genet Affair (1793) Edmond-Charles Genet: ○ Sent by France to secure U.S. support in its war against England. ○ His efforts to outfit French privateers in American ports led to diplomatic tensions and embarrassed the U.S. ○ Washington’s Proclamation of Neutrality (April 22, 1793), urged by Hamilton, rejected involvement in the European conflict. ○ Genet's actions led to his recall, but due to instability in France, he settled in the U.S. Jay Treaty (1794) Purpose: Signed by Washington to resolve issues lingering from the Revolutionary War with Great Britain. French Reaction: France viewed it as a violation of neutrality and began seizing American merchant ships. Washington’s Farewell Address (1796) Key Advice: Warned against entanglement in European affairs. Impact: His advice influenced U.S. foreign policy for nearly a century, until the Spanish- American War in 1898. John Adams’ Presidency (1797-1801) Tensions with France: ○ Following Washington’s presidency, relations with France remained strained. ○ XYZ Affair (1797): French agents demanded bribes from American diplomats, sparking outrage in the U.S. and calls for war. ○ The slogan "Millions for defense, not one cent for tribute" became popular. Quasi-War with France (1798-1800): ○ An undeclared naval conflict between the U.S. and France. ○ The U.S. Navy won several engagements against French ships. ○ The conflict ended shortly before Adams left office, but his defeat in the 1800 election came before the resolution reached America. Jefferson’s Embargo Act (1807) Context: ○ Continued challenges with both Britain and France, including impressment (forced conscription) of American sailors by the British. Embargo Act: ○ Shut down all international trade in an effort to avoid war, particularly with Britain. ○ Ports were closed, leading to an economic depression, especially in Northern commercial centers. ○ Jefferson faced severe criticism and left office after two terms, with his successor, James Madison, inheriting the situation. War of 1812 Build-Up: ○ Continued impressment of American sailors by Britain and British support for Native American tribes against American settlers. ○ The War Hawks, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, pushed for war with Britain. Declaration of War (1812): ○ President Madison reluctantly asked Congress for war, leading to a poorly executed American invasion of Canada. ○ However, the U.S. Navy had several significant victories over British warships. British Attacks: ○ British forces burned Washington, D.C. in 1814, a significant humiliation. ○ The Battle of New Orleans (January 1815), a stunning U.S. victory led by Andrew Jackson, took place two weeks after the Treaty of Ghent was signed, ending the war. Treaty of Ghent (1815): ○ Ended the war with no major changes, using the language "status quo antebellum" (return to pre-war conditions). ○ Despite this, the war fostered a surge of American nationalism. Post-War of 1812 Shift in Focus: ○ With the war over, the U.S. turned its attention westward, expanding into the interior. ○ Relations with European powers became less central to American foreign policy, as the country focused on its own continental expansion. Detailed Notes on American Foreign Policy: The Turning Point, 1898-1919 by Ralph Raico Overview: The Transformation of American Foreign Policy End of the 19th Century: Marked a major shift in U.S. foreign policy from the non- interventionist principles of the Founding Fathers to global involvement through war. Impact of War: War has fundamentally altered the U.S. political system, affecting the Constitution, national development, and the public mindset. Shift in Ideals: The original American idea, focused on limited government and non- intervention, was replaced with a vision of global influence and imperialism. Founding Principles of American Foreign Policy George Washington’s Farewell Address: Advised extending commercial relations but minimizing political connections with foreign nations to avoid war. James Madison: Warned that war leads to the creation of armies, debts, and taxes, which erode public liberty and empower elites. John Quincy Adams: Advocated for America to support freedom abroad through example rather than by force, stating, “America goes not abroad in search of monsters to destroy.” Non-Interventionism and the Monroe Doctrine John Quincy Adams: Architect of the Monroe Doctrine—Europe should not interfere in the Western Hemisphere, and in return, the U.S. would stay out of European conflicts. Neutrality and Non-Intervention: The U.S. maintained this approach for much of the 19th century, focusing on domestic development and avoiding European entanglements. Shift Toward Imperialism in the Late 19th Century Imperialism in Europe: By the late 1800s, European powers were engaging in imperialism, acquiring colonies and building large armies and navies. Alfred Thayer Mahan: His book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890), advocated for a strong navy and inspired imperialist ambitions in the U.S. The “Large Policy”: A group of U.S. political leaders, including Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge, and John Hay, promoted imperial expansion as the key to America’s global role. Spanish-American War (1898) Public Sentiment: Slogans like "freedom" and "independence" for Cuba resonated with Americans, but there was limited support for direct involvement. USS Maine Incident: The explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor, likely accidental or possibly sabotage by Cuban rebels, was used as a pretext for war with Spain. War and Imperialism: ○ Cuba: The U.S. entered the war with Spain and quickly defeated it, taking control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. ○ Philippine-American War: Emilio Aguinaldo, a Filipino leader, initially fought with Americans against Spain but turned against U.S. forces when they sought to annex the Philippines. American Expansion and Imperialism Acquisition of Territories: The U.S. gained control of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and a protectorate over Cuba. William McKinley’s Justification: McKinley framed the annexation of the Philippines as a mission to "civilize and Christianize" the Filipinos, despite their pre-existing Roman Catholic faith. Anti-Imperialist League: Opposition to U.S. imperialism was led by figures like William Graham Sumner, Andrew Carnegie, and Mark Twain. They warned of the dangers of militarism and the loss of American liberties. The First World War (1914-1919) Wilson’s Progressive Vision: ○ Woodrow Wilson was a key figure in shifting U.S. foreign policy towards global involvement, advocating for the U.S. to "make the world safe for democracy." ○ Wilson believed America had a duty to spread democracy and intervene in world affairs, a significant departure from traditional non-interventionism. European Context: ○ The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered the war, but it was rooted in decades of imperial rivalries and alliances between European powers. ○ The Triple Entente (France, Russia, Britain) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) were the two opposing blocs. Consequences of U.S. Imperialism and World War I Imperialism’s Impact on American Government: ○ War and imperialism shifted power from states to the federal government, centralizing authority in the presidency. ○ The expansion of U.S. involvement in global affairs led to the growth of government bureaucracy, military expenditures, and a shift away from localism. Anti-Imperialism Criticism: ○ William Graham Sumner and other critics argued that the U.S. was abandoning its founding principles, warning of "war, debt, taxation, diplomacy, and imperialism." ○ They feared that America’s involvement in global power struggles would lead to the erosion of individual freedoms and a permanent state of militarism. Post-War Effects and Legacy New Role in World Politics: By the end of World War I, the U.S. had cemented its role as a global power. Imperial Presidency: The shift toward global interventionism had fundamentally altered the balance of power in the U.S., giving the president greater authority in foreign affairs. Key Figures George Washington: Advocated for non-intervention and warned against foreign entanglements. James Madison: Argued that war is the greatest threat to liberty. Theodore Roosevelt: Prominent advocate of American imperialism and naval power. William McKinley: Led the U.S. into the Spanish-American War and justified imperialism. Woodrow Wilson: Shifted U.S. foreign policy toward global interventionism under the banner of spreading democracy.