COM1511 All - Communication (PDF)

  1 LEARNING UNIT 1 2 The needs in a society 2 1.1 Introduction2 1.2 What is communication? 3 1...

  1 LEARNING UNIT 1 2 The needs in a society 2 1.1 Introduction2 1.2 What is communication? 3 1.3 The history of communication 6 1.4 Indigenous forms of communication 7 1.5 Why do we communicate? 9 1.6 The communication models 9 1.7 Conclusion14........... 1 CO M1511/1  1 LEARNING UNIT 1 1 INTRODUCING COMMUNICATION By Vuyolwethu Seti-Sonamzi 1.1 INTRODUCTION This unit begins by positioning the study of communication. We will now introduce you to new ways of understanding the study of communication. As we seek more inclusive epistemic inclinations, we request that you read the contents of this unit with an open mind, cognisant of the fact that your lived experience is a site of knowledge, and you owe it to yourself to explore this knowledge. This unit defines communication in a manner that opens it up to different interpretations, thus allowing you to expand this definition based on your worldview. Thereafter, we take you through a list of different communication types, with the view of emphasising that communication occurs in various formats and contexts. The history of communication is then discussed to sensitise you to the fact that history is a contested space, this contestation also applies to the history of communication. Moreover, we introduce you to indigenous communication methods which then leads to a new alternative communication model and process. Learning outcomes After studying this unit, you should be able to: explain the nature of communication as a general form outline the history of communication, starting with the origins in Western society to this decolonial moment distinguish the different types of communication differentiate between the old and new models of communication KEY CONCEPTS Communication; types of communication; indigenous communication; history of communication........... 2  L E AR N I N G U N I T 1: I nt r o du c i n g co m m u n i c at i o n 1.2 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION? For the purpose of this module, communication is seen as “the sharing of meaning from one entity to another”. This meaning can be shared in the form of talking, writing, dancing, music, storytelling, or through the food we make and eat, the arts, ukubona (visions), ukuphupha (dreams), ukuphahla (ancestral conversations), ukuxhela (ancestral ceremonies). Please note that these translations may not be accurate for the intended purpose, but they do provide some context. That is to say, it is not always possible to directly translate African epistemologies in academic discourse, but we must insist on their use, in order to promote a more just academy. We would like you to view communication as a broader activity, where various people are accommodated in the various ways they communicate. There is no right way to communicate, as communication is linked to culture and socialisation; different people undertake this activity in different ways. Have you heard about the concept “love language”? The ways in which we communicate our love? It is believed that humans use different ‘communicative’ tools to communicate their love to others. Some use ‘acts of service’, others use words of affection, some prefer physical touch, while others prefer gifts. There are various and unlimited ways to ‘communicate’, as discussed below. 1 AC TIV IT Y 1.1: WHAT IS COMMUNIC ATION? Using your own lived experiences and own words, define the word com- munication as you understand it. Please post this on the Discussion Forum - Discussion 1 1.2.1 The Different Types of Communication STORYTELLING Do you remember your grandparents or parents telling you stories (iintsomi, dinonwane) of “The jackal and hare” or “The rabbit and the tortoise” when you were a child? Looking back, you realise that these stories were used to shape your behaviour; to encourage honesty, chivalry, collaboration, and hard work. Storytelling is one of the oldest methods of African communication. Due to the communal nature of African society, storytelling was a communal activity that was used to connect, showcase creativity, teach and entertain. H E R E’ S A N E X A M PL E… Many societies have and still use storytelling for various reasons. News reading is an example of literal storytelling............ 3 CO M1511/1  UKUPHUPHA- UKUPHAHLA (GOPHAHLA)–UKUXHELA [DREAMING – SUPPLICATION–SACRIFICE] This method of communication is included here to explain that indigenous ways of knowing, being and, thus, communicating, which have been marginalised since colonial-apartheid, are valid sites of knowledge and should be central in how we understand ourselves. Viewed with contempt and suspicion, indigenous ways of being have been externalised in academic discourse; leading to their marginalisation and exclusion. This section seeks to expand your worldview of “communication” by deliberately bringing to the centre all the knowledges that have been relegated to the margins. The various forms of communication have traditionally been described from just one worldview, the Western perspective, thereby eliminating and marginalising entire societies that view/do things differently. This module seeks to undo this. This is not meant to universalise ways of being that may not apply to others, but to expand our view and knowledge of the world around us. H E R E’ S A N E X A M PL E… There are those who do not believe in or subscribe to some traditions and cus- toms, and there are others who do; both positions are acceptable. The vantage point of this module is that more than one worldview can be right and true at the same time; hence, we espouse pluriversality. How we seek to achieve this, by including different forms of being, to open our respective worlds to others, and their worlds to ours. Some Africans societies have, for centuries, used visions and dreams to make sense of their world, to predict the future, and to receive messages from those who came before us (ancestors). We then send messages to our ancestors through ukuphahla (supplication) and ukuxhela (sacrifice), this practice emanates from African cosmological belief that emphasises the circularity of life, which prompts us to believe that our loved ones do not leave us, even in death. Thus, our definition and understanding of communication accommodates epistemologies that choose to view life as existing beyond living beings and physical entities. This is summed up by the African saying, “The world is a gift from our ancestors, we preserve it for those yet to be born.” Beliefs, such as these, are used to ensure that the living understand their obligation to preserve the world for them, as they are expected to do the same for those yet-to-come. This is why we keep contact with them throughout our lives. Although there are ceremonies that can be performed to this end, Africans can communicate with the ancestors even by the mere mention of their clan- name (e.g., isithakazelo), throughout the day. We see this when one stumbles or is alarmed and immediately exclaims, “maTshawe” or “maNtungwa”, in response. The arts – dance, music, sculpting, drawing, etc. We communicate using various art forms, such as dance, music, drawing, sculpting, and rock-painting. Often, there are certain artforms that are used for........... 4  L E AR N I N G U N I T 1: I nt r o du c i n g co m m u n i c at i o n specific reasons/occasions. Imagine ‘amagwijo’, a type of music that is used by Xhosa boys and men during initiation activities. Ukuxhentso (traditional dances) are performed at different times, for specific reasons. The Khoi and San are famous for having recorded part of their history using rock art as a communicative tool. Hence, the various forms of art are a type of communication, because we use it to communicate. H E R E’ S A N E X A M PL E… The traditional dances of the Batswana are said to mimic different animal move- ments and tell stories of hunting, herding and preservation. FOOD Food preparation and sharing is an age-old form of communication for indigenous communities across the world. This manifests in the communal ways in which food is prepared, shared and enjoyed. Indigenous communities tend to communicate love, acceptance, friendship and collegiality through food. Many societies use food as a form of cultural expression, community or coming together, and for reference. H E R E’ S A N E X A M PL E… The different Muslim people, for example, share iftar, a mealtime, allocated to break the fast during Ramadan. Food is used to demonstrate a welcoming environment for visitors; one observes this when the children in a home are instructed to fetch “metsi” for a visitor and they know to bring a plate of food, or a cup of tea with bread or scones. VERBAL/NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION Generally, humans learn to speak before they learn to write. This means reasoning occurs whether one writes it down or not. In other words, verbal communication is our first communicative practice, making it fundamental to our understanding of the world. However, the human communication tradition is a complex one and requires an open mind. Human communication requires one to understand that humans are and have always been evolving. There is no one correct communication tradition; we must allow space for fluidity and change. Verbal and non-verbal communication is largely dependent on a society’s cultural norms and values. WRITTEN SPEECH The written word is one of the most primary modes of communication in today’s society, but there are other ways to get a message across. Think of a nod, wink, a smile, these are forms of nonverbal communication. In business and personal life, we often use the written word to keep a record of discussions, issues, and instructions. We often send a confirmation e-mail after being given an instruction to ensure clarity or to keep record of discussions. We write........... 5 CO M1511/1  notes, meeting minutes and policy documents to give direction and vision in our work. We use the written work to legislate and solidify policies that modify or guide our behaviour. The recent “Hate Speech Bill” is one such use of written legislation that is used to curb injustice. Organisations use written word to ensure continuity and transparency, that is, if one member of the team leaves, the next appointee must be able to do the work from reading company documents attached to the job. 2 AC TIVIT Y 1. 2: COMMUNIC ATION T YPES Using an example from your lived experience, discuss one of the ‘commu- nication types’ described above, to illustrate your understanding. Explain lessons learnt about communicative practice and its link to cultures and customs. Please post this on the Discussion Forum - Discussion 2 1.3 THE HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION 1.3.1 THE AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE It is a widely accepted fact that life and humanity began in Africa, the oldest human remains were found in Africa; although scientists are still debating whether Homo Lucy or Homo Naledi is our oldest ancestor (Choi 2022). With the definition of communication provided above, it is clear, therefore, that communication also began in Africa. Africans have been an oral, artistic and written society for a long time. Afterall, the first university in the history of humanity was founded in Africa, the University of Timbuktu, in Mali. Reasonably, the birthplace of humanity is also the birthplace of communication. In Western racist imagery, Africa is often referred to as a continent that historically only used oral communication. Although there is truth to the fact that a large body of the African communicative practice is oral in nature, Africans have equally been communicating in written, artistic and scientific formats. Timbuktu, the San artworks, and Inzalo yeLanga, a sacred sight in Mpumalanga (South Africa), prove this. We also seek to position ourselves by subscribing to the notion that different civilisations can define their own ways of communicating by/for themselves. One does not have to be able to write the contemporary Western alphabet to know how to ‘write’, neither does one have to conduct laboratory-based science, to do science. H E R E’ S A N E X A M PL E… For example, the San artworks, which will be discussed later, are a perfect ex- ample of African writing that transcends the alphabet. We know this, because, in these artworks, history was recorded and is intelligible, even in the absence of the Westernised alphabet............ 6  L E AR N I N G U N I T 1: I nt r o du c i n g co m m u n i c at i o n V I D E O : H I S TO RY O F CO M M U N I C AT I O N Please see the YouTube video shared below. It is titled, “A brief history of communication”. This video is meant to supplement the above sec- tion and provide you with a visual presentation and argumentation regarding the topic. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rDkxsNmKDGk To access the video: (1) Press the control (Ctrl) button on your keypad (2) Use your mouse or mousepad to click on the link. (3) It should open the video on your desktop/laptop/devise. 1.3.1.1 FROM SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS TO WRITTEN COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE Human communicative practice includes grunting or a change in the pitch of the voice, to indicate mood and attitude. Historically, the body was extensively used to communicate, and you will see remnants of this today in how indigenous societies use their whole body to communicate. The South Africa History Organisation points to the first use of symbols to communicate, in ancient Egypt, and these symbols are believed to have evolved into the alphabet. 1.3.1.2 LANGUAGE, SYMBOLS, SONGS, ART AND DANCE Cave drawings and paintings were used to record the daily activities of the San communities. These later became the one way to tell the history of the San people, as they would tell stories of battle, hunting and cultural practices. Drums were also used to signal events, trouble, or send invitations. Smoke signals were used in similar ways, like present day telephones. Please see the YouTube video shared below. It is titled, “African communication system”. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iU33esJlMT0&t=147s 1.4 INDIGENOUS FORMS OF COMMUNICATION In any society, communication mimics the cosmological and cultural beliefs of a given society. That is to say, communicative practice emerges from culture and cosmology. African cosmology, for example, is centred on the belief that life is circular, that it is continuous and unpredictable. This cosmological inclination can be seen in the ways Africans design their traditional homes and homesteads, in a circular formation. Think of the ‘mud hut’ or circular traditional villages–images that have been incorrectly used to perpetuate the idea African inferiority or uncivility. This structure was used to aid communalism and collectivist ways of life. Thus, even the communicative culture is based on community, collective good and connection. Below are some forms of indigenous communication............ 7 CO M1511/1  1.4.1 SAN ARTWORKS With the European expansion and its unfounded claims as a ‘civilising mission’, came the disregard of the ways of those they regarded as the “other”. The European viewed themselves as the standard of humanity, their ways were the right way; their culture the right culture; their ways of being, the right way of being, and knowing (Cesaire 1972). With that, their written word, the only correct version. Therefore, when we define the study of communication, inclusive of our own epistemology, it is deemed “radical” or “unusual” or “insane”, instead of normal. Therefore, we doubt our own ways of knowing and are constantly suspicious of our epistemologies; this is the intentional result of a colonisation that never left. When Europeans colonised half the world, they positioned books and the written word as the only way of storing, disseminating and recording knowledge. The San artworks became one of the first casualties of this exclusion. Although they told detailed accounts of history, battles and hunting activities, these records were disregarded, because they were not diaries or books. The argument was that there wasn’t a guaranteed way of preserving the artworks over time, as opposed to books. Yet, the artworks have remained for hundreds of years. Alas, African cosmology rests on the trust of time to provide and the belief that life has always been there and will always be there; that we do not need to know everything all the time. Thus, if we had lost the artworks, life in the present would still go on. The San artworks are an important part of the communicative history of the African people. They inculcate the creative, artistic and storytelling abilities of the people of this land. FIGURE 2 Examples of San artworks (Lucas Kaffer 2015) 1.4.2 STORYTELLING Storytelling, as explained above, is used in many societies to aid in the socialisation of children, to entertain, instil discipline, impart values and build harmonised communities. Please see the practical activity below............ 8  L E AR N I N G U N I T 1: I nt r o du c i n g co m m u n i c at i o n 3 AC TIVIT Y 1. 3: S TORY TELLING For this activity, you are expected to record and submit a video of yourself telling a story: – This need not be a fairy-tale, but may be a story from your day-to- day experiences as a South African/African/global citizen. – Please limit the short story to three (3) and five (5) minutes long. 1.5 WHY DO WE COMMUNICATE? To establish connections To express various emotions To share needs, wants, hopes and desires To facilitate struggles, share experiences, inform and educate Surveillance Physical needs Identity formation 1.6 THE COMMUNICATION MODELS The use of models to explain is as old as the modern study itself. Models are used to systematically explain concepts to students; thus, we introduce a new model of communication that speaks to the definition provided above. 1.6.1 An Intuitive Model of Communication The new model and its associated process of communication is characterised by a circular, non-linear inclination that makes it possible for communication to continue unabated. The new process of communication expands the participants beyond living humans and physical organisations, to include those who came before us, our lived experiences and those yet to be born. These components of this model are: THE COMMUNICATING ENTITY This module advances the premise that the communicating entity is not necessary the first communicator to send a message. Thus, you may start explaining/describing this model from any point of departure, and it would still work. This communicating entity, which may be in the form of a verbal or non-verbal communication, visions (ukubona), or dreams (ukuphupha), is valid and deserving of attention. We have allowed ourselves the grace to define this entity as widely as possible – as a person, an organisation, a political formation, a religious or cultural organisation, etc............ 9 CO M1511/1  THE MEDIUM OF COMMUNICATION The medium of communication can be seen as a resource that allows us to connect to the communicating entity. This connection can be achieved through the beating of the drum, a good cellular connection, traditional beads or a traditional dance that disconnects us from our day-to-day lives and places us in a different realm. SHARING OF MEANING As explained in the definition, the sharing of meaning, whether it is our dreams and wishes, hopes and aspirations or the extension of gratitude, is central to communication. One communicates in order to retain a connection to those who are important, in this and in other realms. THE COMMUNICATING ENTITY As indicated above, this entity is a participating member of this communication process. He/She/They/It is/are important, as the process may not be complete without them. As explained above, indigenous societies allow themselves to communicate with entities that do not live on this realm: this entity may also be a person, an organisation, a political party, etc. FEEDBACK THAT IS NOT ALWAYS IMMEDIATE OR VERBAL Feedback, in this model, is not an immediate requirement to complete the communication process. It may be as obvious as a simple reply to a question or a survey that proves satisfaction or understanding. As this model speaks to the sharing of meaning, feedback is not rushed or forced. The communication is deemed complete, either way. Please see model below:........... 10  L E AR N I N G U N I T 1: I nt r o du c i n g co m m u n i c at i o n AN INTUITIVE COMMUNICATION MODEL The communicating entity Feedback (not The medium of always immediate communication - or readily visible) - isiphandla, dreams, visions, impepho, dance, signs, a successful the drum, food, sales season, a favourable survey All invested in cellular connection, the media from clients a successful communicatio n process Sharing of meaning: dreams, The hopes, fears, aspirations, communicating thanks giving, entity advertising, sales, passing of messages, etc. Source: Seti (2020) 1.6.2 THE LINEAR COMMUNICATION MODEL The old linear process of communication consists of the following components: Sender Encoding Message Channel Receiver Decoding Feedback Noise 1.6.3 THE Shannon-Weaver COMMUNICATION MODEL The Shannon-Weaver model of communication is a mathematical model that was developed in 1949 by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver. It is a widely used model in technical fields and has been adapted for use in other fields of study as well. The model is based on the idea that communication is a process of transmitting information from a sender to a receiver through a........... 11 CO M1511/1  channel.The model consists of seven basic elements (Drew 2023) as illustrated in the graphic and discussion below: 1. Sender: The sender is the person or entity who initiates the communication process by creating a message to be sent to the receiver. The sender is responsible for encoding the message into a form that can be transmitted through the channel and for selecting the appropriate channel for transmitting the message. The sender’s role is to ensure that the message is clear, concise, and relevant to the receiver. The sender must also consider the receiver’s language, culture, and context when creating the message to ensure that it is appropriate and understandable. 2. Encoding: Encoding is the process of converting a message into a form that can be transmitted through a communication channel. In the context of communication, encoding involves selecting the appropriate symbols, words, or phrases to represent the message and arranging them in a way that can be transmitted through the channel. The encoding process can be affected by several factors, including the sender’s language, culture, and context. 2. Message: The message is the information or content that is being transmitted from the sender to the receiver. The message can take many forms, including verbal communication, written communication, and nonverbal communication. The message is the core of the communication process, and it is the reason why the communication is taking place. The message must be clear, concise, and relevant to the receiver in order to be effective. The message can be affected by several factors, including the sender’s communication skills, knowledge of the subject matter, and ability to connect with the receiver. 3. Channel: The channel is the medium through which the message is transmitted, such as a telephone line, radio waves, or the internet. The channel can take many forms, including verbal communication, written communication, and electronic communication. The channel can be affected by several factors, including the sender’s and receiver’s location, the technology used to transmit the message, and the physical environment in which the communication is taking place. For example, a face-to-face conversation may be affected by........... 12  L E AR N I N G U N I T 1: I nt r o du c i n g co m m u n i c at i o n background noise or distractions, while an email may be affected by technical issues such as slow internet speed or spam filters. 4. Receiver: The receiver is person or entity who receives the message from the sender. The receiver is an essential component of the communication process, as the message is intended to be received and understood by the receiver. The receiver can be an individual or a group of individuals, and can take many forms, including a person, a team, an organisation, or a community. The receiver can be located in the same physical space as the sender or can be located in a different location. 5. Decoding: In the context of communication, decoding is the process by which the receiver of a message interprets the meaning of the message that has been transmitted by the sender. Decoding is an essential component of the communication process, as it allows the receiver to understand the message and to respond appropriately. Decoding involves several steps, including receiving the message, interpreting the message, and assigning meaning to the message. The receiver must be able to understand the language and symbols that are used in the message, and must be able to interpret the message in the context of their own knowledge, experience and culture. 6. Noise: It refers to any interference or distortion that affects the transmission or reception of the message. Noise can take many forms, including physical noise, semantic noise, and psychological noise. Noise can have a significant impact on the effectiveness of communication, as it can interfere with the transmission or reception of the message and can affect the receiver’s interpretation of the message. 7. Feedback: In the context of communication, feedback refers to the response or reaction of the receiver to the message that has been transmitted by the sender. Feedback is an essential component of the communication process, as it allows the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message and to make any necessary adjustments. Feedback can take many forms, including verbal or written responses, nonverbal cues such as facial expressions or body language, or actions taken by the receiver in response to the message. Feedback can be positive, negative, or neutral, and can provide valuable information to the sender about the receiver’s understanding of the message, their level of engagement, and their needs and preferences. Feedback can also be used to initiate a dialogue between the sender and receiver. Communication is an essential part of human interaction, and it impacts all facets of life, including personal relationships, work, and social interactions. Here are some practical applications of understanding communication systems (Drew 2023): 1. Improving personal relationships: Effective communication is essential for building and maintaining healthy relationships. Understanding communication systems can help individuals communicate more effectively, listen actively, and express themselves clearly............ 13 CO M1511/1  2. Enhancing workplace productivity: Communication is critical in the workplace, and understanding communication systems can help improve productivity, teamwork, and collaboration. Effective communication can also help reduce misunderstandings, conflicts, and errors. 3. Navigating social interactions: Communication is essential for navigating social interactions, such as making new friends, networking, and dating. Understanding communication systems can help individuals communicate more confidently, express themselves clearly, and understand others’ perspectives. 4. Using technology: Technology has revolutionised communication, and understanding communication systems can help individuals use technology more effectively. For example, understanding how the internet works can help individuals navigate websites, use social media, and communicate online. S L I D E S H A R E : S H A N N O N - W E AV E R M O D E L O F CO M M U N I C AT I O N Please view the slide-share linked below, it explains the Shannon-Weaver model of communication depicted and explained above. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xuJKEqiv0XQ To access the presentation: – Press the control (Ctrl) button on your keypad – Use your mouse or mousepad to click on the link. – It should open the video on your desktop/laptop/device. 4 AC TIVIT Y 1.4: MODEL S OF COMMUNIC ATION The linear and intuitive models of communication above represent dif- ferent worldviews; you may be able to identify with one or both of these. Look closely at the models: (1) Using relevant examples/lived experiences, compare and contrast these communication models. (2) Explain your understanding of each of these models. 1.7 CONCLUSION This unit defined, described and situated the study of communication as an evolving field of study that, in this decolonial moment, requires careful interrogation. The unit began by providing a definition of communication that seeks to situate itself in the epistemologies of different marginalised communities, by insisting that we be open alternative views to our understanding of the world, to achieve true knowledge. This unit then presented you with the different types of communicative practices, the reasons we communicate in the first place and the models we can use to understand communication............ 14  L E AR N I N G U N I T 1: I nt r o du c i n g co m m u n i c at i o n LIST OF SOURCES CONSULTED Cesaire, A. 1972. Discourse on colonialism. New York and London: Monthly Review Press. Choi, C. 2022. South African fossils may rewrite history of human evolution. Live Science. Available at: https://www.livescience.com/south-african-fossils- human-evolution (Accessed: 25 May 2022). Drew, C. (2023). Shannon Weaver Model of Communication – 7 Key Concepts. Helpful Professor. [O]. Available: https://helpfulprofessor.com/shannon-weaver- model/ Accessed 2023/07/04 South African History Organisation. The oldest forms of human communication. Available at: h t t p s : / / w w w. s a h i s t o r y. o r g. z a / a r t i c l e /o l d e s t - f o r m s - human-communication#:~:text=Some%20of%20the%20oldest%20 forms,%2C%20acting%2C%20and%20using%20symbols.&text=Making%20 sounds%20such%20as%20grunting,or%20be%20a%20warning%20sign (Accessed: 05 June 2022)............ 15 CO M1511/1  2 LEARNING UNIT 2 17 Contextualising communication 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 What are the different contexts of communication? 18 2.3 Communicating with the self 19 2.4 Communicating with others 22 2.5 Communicating in the workplace 29 2.6 Communicating with many 31 2.7 Culturally sensitive communication 35 2.8 Mass communication 40 2.9 Digitally mediated communication 45 2.10 Conclusion 45........... 16 2 LEARNING UNIT 2 2 CONTEXTUALISING COMMUNICATION by Marié van Heerden and Khatija Bibi Khan 2.1 INTRODUCTION In the previous unit, we explained to you what communication entails. We discussed the history of communication, the communication process and models of communication, as well as different types of communication. In this unit, we will show you that different types of communication occur in different contexts. That means that when we communicate, we do so in different circumstances and in different ways. In the following sections, you will see how all these variables influence our communication and that the contexts of communication have a profound influence on the way in which we communicate. When studying this unit, it is important to remember that we define communication as the sharing of meaning from one entity to another. This definition is more inclusive than other definitions that was previously subscribed to by Western communication scholars. Our definition embraces not only the act of talking and writing, but also dance, music, food, arts, ukubona (visions), ukuphupha (dreams), ukuphala, ukuxhela (ancestral sacrifices) and other forms of communication, as discussed in unit 1, above. Where many Western definitions are somewhat limiting in terms of what communication is and in which contexts it occurs, our African decolonialised definition accommodates various ways in which the living, living dead and those yet to be born communicate. As Grimes and Parker (2009: 505) state: “Decolonisation is committed to making the marginalised communities un-marginalised.” Therefore, we will not accept the current “norm” as the only possible truth. As you will see in COM1513, when you continue your studies, decolonisation demands an indigenous framework and a centring of indigenous land, indigenous sovereignty and indigenous ways of thinking (Ritskes 2012). The section below discusses the different contexts, also referred to as levels, in which communication occurs. Remember, communication is a broad term, so we will try to accommodate various traditions when explaining these levels............ 17 CO M1511/1  LE AR NING OUTCOMES After studying this unit, you should be able to: differentiate between the different contexts of communication demonstrate an understanding of the concepts, elements, and processes of communication, in different contexts be able to apply culturally sensitive communication modes KEY CONCEPTS Communication with the self, self-concept, perception, communicating with oth- ers, feedback, noise, communicating in groups, communicating in the workplace, public communication, public speaking, cultural sensitivity, language, mass com- munication, digital communication 2.2 WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION? According to Verderber and Verderber (2016:6), “context is the physical, social, historical, psychological and cultural settings in which communication occurs”. The physical context concerns the place where the communication occurs, the environment, the distance between communicators and the time of day. The social context refers to the relationship between the participants and the reason for the communication encounter. The historical context has to do with previous communication encounters between the participants. If I ask you today if you did it yesterday, you will need to know what I am referring to. In the African context, the historical context could also have the connotation of having been able to communicate with those who have passed on (ancestors), and those yet to be born. The psychological context includes the communicators’ feelings. The cultural context includes the “beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, social hierarchy, religion, notions of time, and roles of a group of people” (Samovar & Porter 2000:7). V I D E O AC T I V I T Y 2.1: L E V E L S O R CO N T E X T S O F CO M M U N I C AT I O N Watch the video below for a brief introduction to the different levels or con- texts of communication. Reflect on how you use different levels of commu- nication in your everyday interactions, summarise your reflections and then discuss it with a fellow student on the Discussion Forum. Video available at: ht tps://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are -the - dif ferent-levels- of-communication.html........... 18  L E AR N I N G U N I T 2 : Co nte x t u a lisi n g co m m u n i c at i o n To access the video: (1) Press the control (Ctrl) button on your keypad (2) Use your mouse or mousepad to click on the link. (3) It should open the video on your desktop. We will now begin to discuss the different contexts of communication in more detail. 2.3 COMMUNICATING WITH THE SELF Communication first occurs within oneself, before we are able to communicate with others (this is termed intra-personal communication). When we are thinking, talking to ourselves, planning, journaling, or wondering about things, we are communicating with ourselves. Even acts of visualisation or imagination, recall and memory falls under this context of communication. It is a type of communication that can be seen as an internal dialogue. In this context of communication, you are both the person ‘sending’ and ‘receiving’ the message. The definition of communicating with the self is, however, broader than that of the definition of intra-personal communication. According to African cosmology, one is never alone. The circular nature of life makes it so that the “living-dead” are with us all the time. When one communicates with the self, you share hopes, dreams, and fears with those who came before you. An example is how one would use ‘efunga’, when something happens (not necessarily only bad things), but one can also say: Ngiyafunga, ngiyagomela (loosely translated from isiZulu as, “I swear, I affirm”), to show gratitude about something good which has happened in their lives. This is a means of communicating and calling upon those who have left (passed on) to guide, help and support us. Even when we are not communicating directly with other living people, we are communicating with the self and those that came before us. Intra-personal communication or communication with the self; thus, includes the thoughts, assessments, contemplations and feelings that are associated with all of one’s inner communication. 2.3.1 CONCEPTS THAT ARE IMPORTANT IN COMMUNICATING WITH THE SELF According to University of the People (Sa), the following are important concepts when we are discussing communicating with the self: Self-concept: One’s own self-concept is at the centre of intrapersonal commu- nication. It includes an evaluation of one’s own beliefs, values and attitudes, and how that evaluation plays into what occurs in the outer world. Our self- concept is the basis of our communication with the self, as it determines how you see yourself and how you feel about others. Perception: Perception is how people interpret what is going on around them. Perception can influence intrapersonal communication............ 19 CO M1511/1  Expectation: Expectations are based upon intrapersonal communication with one’s own self and are predictions of what will happen, based on perceptions of what has happened. We need to understand exactly what is entailed with the “self” and “self- concept”, if we want to understand this context of communication. The concept of self describes “who and what we think we are–that is our personal identity” (Steinberg 2007:140). According to Burton and Dimbleby (1998), we are, in fact, many selves: the physical self, emotional self, intellectual self, and the moral self. These different parts of ourselves work together to form our self, and it is not a static thing, but rather active and dynamic. Our own views of our self will form our self-concept. There is also a difference between our actual self and our ideal self. Your actual self consists of the attributes that you actually possess, whilst your ideal self consists of the attributes that you would like to have. 5 AC TIV IT Y 2. 2: COMMUNIC ATING WITH YOUR SELF Think of the different selves mentioned above. Try to give an example of communicating with yourself that illustrate each of these selves. Our self-concept influences our self-esteem, relationships with other people, and how we communicate with them. Others’ views of us, or their perceptions of us, also affect our self-concept. Social comparison can also influence our self-concept, as we compare what we do and what we believe to others. There are different theories about self-concept. Cooley’s very old looking-glass self-theory explains that we see ourselves reflected in other people’s reactions to us and then form our self-concept, based on how we believe other people see us. According to this theory, we use social interaction as a type of “mirror”, we use the judgments we receive from others to measure our own worth, values and behaviour (Cooley 1902). According to recent scholars (Lesley University [sa]), this theory is still important “because it suggests that self-concept is not built in solitude, but rather within social settings. In this way, society and individuals are not separate, but rather two complementary aspects of the same phenomenon”. When we take this into account, we realise that the phenomenon of social media, in today’s world, makes the process of the looking-glass self infinitely more complex. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Telegram and Instagram make it possible to connect with others in ways never before imagined. “These platforms have brought with them the concept of the ‘cyber’ self,” says Aiken (2017:63). The cyber self is the version of the self that a person chooses to present on a digital platform. As in real life, the cyber self may interact with other individuals, receive social feedback, and align to social conformities. However, there are major differences between the cyber self and the actual self............ 20  L E AR N I N G U N I T 2 : Co nte x t u a lisi n g co m m u n i c at i o n According to Aiken (2017:64): A person may possess many versions of the cyber self, for example. He or she may present a professional self on LinkedIn, a casual self on Twitter, or an artistic self on Pinterest. The cyber self also continues to exist in social spaces even when people are not interacting with those environments in real time. In this way, social media users are never fully removed from exposure to judgment and criticism. And, unlike the actual self, the cyber self is far more malleable when it comes to being shaped, updated, and perfected. Aiken (2017:64) further states that the unique qualities of the cyber self can have positive and negative implications. Individuals may, for instance, prefer to “live” in digital spaces, at the cost of their real-world selves. But studies have also shown that digital platforms can result in a sense of gained confidence, enhanced creativity, an increased sense of self-worth and a strengthened professional image, among other things. The looking-glass self theory is therefore a theory that can be useful in today’s society. It explains how we are influenced by others and that our communication with ourselves and our self-concept is influenced by our experiences, behaviour, and relationships. AC TIV IT Y 2. 3: ROLES PL AYED WHEN 6 COMMUNIC ATING People often wear multiple masks or plays different roles when commu- nicating with others. They act differently in different situations. Do you know of a person who portrays a different persona on social media than who or what he/she is in real life? If yes, explain why you think so. Closely related to the looking-glass self theory (Cooley 1902), is the so- cial comparison theory (Festinger 1954). According to this theory, we describe and evaluate ourselves in terms of how we compare to other people, based on two dimensions: superiority/inferiority (beauty, intel- ligence, athletic ability, and so on) and similarity/difference. This theory was introduced by psychologist Leon Festinger, in 1954, and suggested that people have an innate drive to evaluate themselves, often in comparison to others (Festinger 1954:117). H E R E’ S A N E X A M PL E… The insensitive Dove Facebook advertisement, which displayed a black woman turning white after having used a dove product. The social comparison theory is evident here, because the advertisers of the product made it look like being white is superior, and more beautiful than being black. Link to the story: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/08/ dove-apologises-for-ad-showing-black-woman-turning-into-white-one........... 21 CO M1511/1  The social comparison process, which involves people coming to know themselves by evaluating their own attitudes, abilities and traits, in comparison with others, can be done by upward social comparison or by downward social comparison. Upward comparison occurs when we compare ourselves with those who we believe are better than us, and it serves to help us improve our current status or level of ability. Although, this may not always be the case (Festinger 1954). Comparing ourselves to others may do more damage than good. This may lead to the inferiority complex of another, leading to a state of depression or even suicide. Downward comparison takes place when we compare ourselves to others, whom we deem less better than us–this could be in terms of their education status, income, etc. (Cherry 2020). From what you have learned above, you should realise that things are not always what they seem. You might believe that you are not too clever, but you try to hide this by studying hard or by reading a lot, so that you can speak intelligently on various topics. Your perception of yourself, thus, influences your behaviour, and your behaviour will influence others’ perceptions of you. Perception can be defined as the ability to become aware of something through your senses, or the way in which something or someone is regarded. It is a process whereby we selectively attend to information, organise it, and interpret and evaluate it. It influences our intrapersonal communication, as well as our self-concept (Steinberg 2007:69). It is a known fact that our perceptions and our view of ourselves are influenced by culture. According to the traditional Western view of the self, the individual is an independent entity, with distinct abilities, traits, motives, and values. However, in our African culture, the family is the basic social unit and there is an interdependence among individuals. In this culture, children are socialised to work with others and know that they will develop higher self-esteem when they are co-operative, helpful and self-effacing (Steinberg 2007:152). The term, ubuntu, sums this up clearly. (Ubuntu will be discussed comprehensively in unit 4 of this study guide.) During intrapersonal communication, we sometimes decide to conceal or reveal personal information to influence others’ perceptions of us. We call this self-presentation. We will deal with this phenomenon in more detail in the next section, where we will discuss communication with others. 2.4 COMMUNICATING WITH OTHERS We all know we are communicating with others when we are, for example, speaking to our friends or other students, writing an e-mail, talking over the phone, posting on Facebook, or tweeting. But, as we explained earlier, African cosmology asserts that we are always communicating with others, even when we are alone. Ukuzithutha/Izithakazelo, for example, is a form of communicating with the living-dead, the living and those yet to be born. For example, when a person from the Xhosa clan say, “OoLibele”, “amaNtakwende”........... 22  L E AR N I N G U N I T 2 : Co nte x t u a lisi n g co m m u n i c at i o n or “ooKhwangeshe”, they would be calling upon and/or even showing gratitude towards their ancestors, and this is also a form of communicating with others. Africans use various modes to communicate, for example, the beating of drums, dancing, and their style of dress. Think of a young Xhosa woman, who wears ‘intambo yenkobe’, a traditional necklace made from the tail of a cow, which has been sourced from the herd of their ancestral home or ekhayakhulu, to show that she is of age and is ready for marriage. This sends a message to both the living and abalele (loosely translated from isiXhosa as “those who are sleeping”/ “the dead”), although the former takes precedence, as it signifies respect to those who are not living. In African culture, we do not say that a person is “dead”, because this is deemed disrespectful to the “spirits”, which are otherwise considered there for us, even though they are not there in physical realm. We consider our ancestors omni-present; always there for and with us; thus, we continue to show them respect and adoration. A Zulu person, for example, would wear Isiphandla (cow/goat skin) to observe traditional rites. This after an important ceremony has been performed, prompting the observer to remain ‘in communication’ with his/her ancestors consistently through Isiphandla. This object is not to be removed until it falls off, signalling that the ritual is complete. In Western hegemony, all of these types of communication are usually referred to as interpersonal communication and they are all defined as communication that occurs between two or more people. According to Wood (2000:22), everything, except communication with the self, can be seen as interpersonal communication. If we do not communicate with others, we will not be able to form relationships and we will not live an authentic life. When we look deeper at communication with others, from our perspective, we must take into account the African worldview. According to this view, we must include the interconnectedness of all things, the spiritual nature of human beings, collective and individual identity, the collective/ inclusive nature of family structures, the oneness of mind, body and spirit, and the value of interpersonal relationships (Thabede 2008:238). Communication with others ranges from communication that is very impersonal, to being highly interpersonal. Think about it, you do not communicate with your pastor or your boss in the same way that you communicate with your best friend. Also, remember that communicating with others are influenced by things like gender, culture, ethnicity and sexual preferences. Sometimes, our communication with others is planned – for instance, you go into a meeting with your boss, knowing what you want to ask. Other times, it is unplanned, as when you meet an old enemy in the street, and you are forced to engage with each other. Remember that you engage in communication with others because it will help you reach a goal, whether it is to strengthen a friendship, to accomplish a task or pass the time. Hence, it should be obvious that context is one of the most important aspects of communication and that there are as many uses for communication it as there are people............ 23 CO M1511/1  7 AC TIV IT Y 2.4: COMMUNIC ATION ENCOUNTERS Describe two communication encounters that you had with different people. Explain why you did not communicate with the two people in the same way, and why the encounters differed in nature. There are many reasons for communicating with others. According to a popular website, www.skillsyouneed.com ([Sa]), it can be used to: give and collect information influence the attitudes and behaviour of others form contacts and maintain relationships make sense of the world and our experiences in it express personal needs and understand the needs of others give and receive emotional support make decisions and solve problems anticipate and predict behaviour regulate power 8 AC TIV IT Y 2. 5: K EEP A DIARY Keep a diary for one day, in which you note down when you communi- cated, verbally and non-verbally, with others. Also write down why you were communicating, drawing from the list above and adding your own reasons for communicating. Post your list on the online blog and compare it with those of your fellow students. You will get a mark for this. 2.4.1 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATING WITH OTHERS When we try to break down the elements that make up the process of communicating with others, there are certain important elements (University of the People [Sa]). 2.4.1.1 THE COMMUNICATORS When we communicate with others, there is always more than one person involved. Some of the older definitions of communication refer to a sender and receiver being involved, but this is too simplistic, as it reduces communication to a one-way process, where only one person sends a message and the other receives it. Communicating with others is more complex. It is an interactive two-way process. Think about when you are talking to your friend, while you are talking, he or she is listening, but also sending you feedback, which can be in the form of a smile, a nod or even a frown............ 24  L E AR N I N G U N I T 2 : Co nte x t u a lisi n g co m m u n i c at i o n 2.4.1.2 THE MESSAGE The message that we communicate does not only include the words that we are saying or writing, meaning that it also includes nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication enriches communication encounters. Remember that nonverbal communication differs between cultures. (We will be focusing on nonverbal communication in study unit 4 of this study guide.) 2.4.1.3 FEEDBACK Feedback are the messages (that is both verbal and nonverbal) that we receive from the other participants in the communication process. For example, when you ask a question, the other person responds. If you are talking to somebody, and it seems as if the person is not interested in what you are saying, their feedback is negative and it might lead to you ending the conversation. Feedback thus allows the sender to regulate, adapt or repeat the message, in order to improve communication. 2.4.1.4 NOISE When we are communicating with others, noise might interfere with the process. Noise is not just actual sounds in the background, which can hinder you hearing a message, it can be anything that distorts a message. We generally distinguish between external noise, internal noise, and semantic noise. These different types of noises will be explained below. External noise comes from the environment. If it is very hot or there is a bad smell in the air, you might feel uncomfortable and not pay attention to what is being said. When a person types in capital letters in an e-mail or on social media, the capital letters will make you believe the person is screaming or shouting at you and it will influence your reaction. Internal noises come from inside of us. If you have a headache or feel depressed, you might not focus on what the other person is saying. Your feelings towards the person you are communicating can also create noise and will influence your interpretation of their messages. Semantic noise has to do with the meaning of words. If you are not familiar with a certain word or phrase, the meaning of the message may be lost. Social and cultural differences between people can also cause semantic noise. 2.4.1.5 CHANNEL The channel refers to the physical means by which a message is transferred from the communicator to the recipient. During face-to-face communication, the channels which are used are speech and vision; when we send a person an e-mail, the channel is writing; and when we perform a dance, the channel includes body movements. A channel can therefore be verbal, non-verbal or written............ 25 CO M1511/1  9 AC TIVIT Y 2.6: OBSERVE COMMUNIC ATION When you go to your local supermarket, observe all the people involved in communication, from the other customers to the person behind the till, the packers and the manager. Answer the following questions: (1) Who are the communicators? (2) What type of interaction is occurring? (3) Is there obvious noise that can distort the message? (4) How do the participants give feedback to each other? (5) What do you learn from the nonverbal behaviour? 2.4.2 COMMUNICATING WITH OTHERS IN GROUPS When more than two people get together, we refer to the context as communicating with others in groups. The group can be made up of a number of participants, and the role or function of the group can also range from goals such as socialising to problem solving or to work or worship. Remember that the understanding of the concept, “group”, differs between cultures. The size of the group that constitutes “group communication” is therefore relative. In Western hegemony a distinction is often made between small group communication and communication in larger groups. Group communication is communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. When you are meeting fellow students to discuss your work, you are involved in group communication. When you are playing a team sport, attending meetings at church, or even just attending a family gathering, you are also communicating with others in a group. In the African context, group communication occurs for various reasons. A lekgotla (in Sotho and Tswana communities of Southern Africa) is a gathering of the people of a village or community, to discuss pertinent issues or to serve as a court of law. The term, kgotla, refers to the designated area in a traditional village that is used for assemblies, court cases and meetings of the leaders. This is a place where community members are disciplined, and it is still a norm in many parts of the country and continent. Groups are an integral part of people’s lives and understanding the dynamics of this context of communication will be valuable for you. Because all of us spend a lot of time interacting in groups, we need to know how group processes work and how to maximise group effectiveness. 2.4.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication. Interpersonal relationships are mostly voluntary, but individuals in a group are often assigned to certain positions. If you think........... 26  L E AR N I N G U N I T 2 : Co nte x t u a lisi n g co m m u n i c at i o n of a family unit, there is generally a father, a mother, siblings, and more distant members. In a group, members work together to accomplish a common purpose. A group is therefore usually task focused. There is an optimum number of diverse members in a group. Research (Barker & Gaut 1996) shows that when there are more people working together in a group, is not necessarily better; the smallest possible number of people in a group is generally more effective. According to Verderber and Verderber (2002:240), it is better to have a heterogeneous group than a homogenous group. In a homogenous group, the members are all very similar, but in a heterogeneous group various demographics, levels of knowledge, interests and attitudes are represented. Cohesiveness is another characteristic of a successful group. In a cohesive group, members get along and share the same goals and are, therefore, they cooperate better. We talk about group norms when we refer to appropriate behaviour in groups. These norms usually develop informally, but there can also be certain ground rules that are set out when the group is formed. Effective groups usually operate in a good working environment. The location or the physical setting, where the group meets, should be convenient for all members. 2.4.2.2 GROUP DEVELOPMENT Since there are many individuals involved within a group, the interactions are usually more complicated. Interpersonal conflict between members and misunderstandings can influence the group, but research has shown that most groups go through certain stages to develop into cohesive entities that can make effective decisions. Various models of group development have been proposed over the years, but Tuckman’s model (1965) is still widely accepted. He called the different stages in group formation forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning. These stages are discussed below. In the forming stage, the group members aim to identify with the group as a whole. The members try to find their place in the group and fit in. During the storming stage the goals are clarified, and group roles are determined. Alternative ideas, opinions and views will be presented, and it is a constructive stage. During norming, even though all the members will not agree on everything, members start to conform, and the group’s norms and standards become clear. In the performing stage, members work together to reach their goals – effective problem solving, and task performance emerge. In the last stage, adjourning, members evaluate their experiences and reflect on what they have achieved, the group may disband or decide how the members are going to continue to work together in future (Verdeber & Verdeber 2017). 2.4.3 PROBLEM SOLVING IN GROUPS Groups follow different approaches to solving problems, but most of the approaches include the following steps (2012books.lardbucket.org [Sa]):........... 27 CO M1511/1  Step 1: Define the problem–When a group forms, the members generally have an idea of what they are supposed to accomplish, but they need to be specific in order to proceed. So, the first step towards solving a problem in a group is to make sure all members know exactly what they intend to do. They must define the problem and gather as much information as possible about it. Step 2: Analyse the problem–During this step, the problem is analysed and members determine what the point will be in solving the problem. Individual members share the information that they have gathered among group members. Step 3: Determining the solution criteria–Here members decide what criteria the solution should meet. They do not solve the problem, but elaborate on what the solution will entail. Step 4: Identify possible solutions–Here all possible solutions will be discussed. The members of the group can make use of brainstorming to come up with a wide range of ideas. Brainstorming involves generating many ideas and possible solutions that can be combined and developed to find an optimum solution. During brainstorming, judgement is not made or the merit of each idea is not evaluated; instead, all ideas are thrown onto the table. Step 5: Evaluating solutions–During this phase, all the alternative solutions will be weighed. The best solution to the problem will be accepted. Step 6: Implement the solution–When the decision has been made on how to solve the problem, the decision will be recommended, presented or implemented. 2.4.4 LEADERSHIP IN GROUPS Most groups have a designated leader. Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common goal and a leader is a person with the ability to influence others. It is often believed that leaders are born and not made. Think about Nelson Mandela, he is still seen as a great leader all over the world. Nowadays, it is believed that leaders are not born as leaders, they become leaders. They have certain traits such as decisiveness, awareness, empathy, accountability and confidence, but most people can be trained to be good leaders. 10 AC TIV IT Y 2.7: LE ADERSHIP IN GROUPS Can you think of other such leaders in history? Leaders, who have innate leadership skills? List five of them. Different leadership styles have been described over the years, but three of the most important ones are the authoritarian, democratic and laissez faire styles. Watch the video below for an explanation of these three leadership styles and then explain which leadership style is most suited to the leaders you listed above............ 28  L E AR N I N G U N I T 2 : Co nte x t u a lisi n g co m m u n i c at i o n https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=leadership+styles&qpvt=leadership+ styles&view=detail&mid=90547384FECCAD3D362090547384FECCAD3D3 620&&FORM=VRDGAR&ru=%2Fvideos%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dleadership%2 Bstyles%26qpvt%3Dleadership%2Bstyles%26FORM%3DVDRE 2.5 COMMUNICATING IN THE WORKPLACE If you think about it, you should realise that communicating in the workplace has different rules than communicating in other contexts – meaning that you do not address your boss in the same way as you address your best friend. When you are at your place of work, there are different rules to when you are at home or in a nightclub or on a sports field. When we are talking about communicating in the workplace, we are mostly dealing with what is also known as organisational communication. In the Western world, organisational communication developed as a specialisation field in the early 1940s. An organisation is seen as two or more people, who intentionally work together to achieve a set of objectives (Angelopulo & Barker 2013). They take many forms and are determined primarily by their objectives. Organisational communication, as a discipline, includes marketing, public relations, advertising, and a whole host of other fields. What binds it all together, is that it is all about communication in and around organisations. Humans are not born to be alone. As you will learn in much more detail when you do the module, COM1513, humans have been getting together in organised communities and forming organisations since ancient times. Our families, societies, communities, and churches are our first experiences of organising, navigating and communicating in organisations. Later in life, we are part of organisations as employees and we interact with organisations as customers, suppliers and service providers. Some of us will be managers of organisations, shareholders or even creators of new organisational entities. As members of society, we automatically are part of a bigger social system, making us involved with all the organisations that share that society with us. Organisations are not physical structures (like the buildings or the brand name), but collections of people that are joined together. According to Mumby (2019:7), one of the defining features of an organisation is that it coordinates the behaviours of its members so that they can work collectively. When we are part of an organisation, we will use many kinds of communication. We will communicate with ourselves, with others and with many in the context of the organisation or workplace. We may also make use of mass communication, digital communication and public communication, to fulfil our role in the organisation and to achieve our goal in the workplace. In our workplace, we will also use internal communication to communicate with people who work with us, and external communication to get information from outside our workplace and provide the world with information about us............ 29 CO M1511/1  2.5.1 DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES TO ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION There are many different ways of looking at communication in the workplace. organisations. These ways of seeing are born from different beliefs about the world and greatly influence the way we practically go about studying and practicing organisational communication. Some well-known perspectives include the functional, interpretivist and critical perspectives (Neher 1997: 25; Van Der Walt 2006: 356; Angelopulo & Thomson 2013: 7). These perspectives will be discussed below. The functionalist perspective is also known as the mechanistic or rational perspective. From this perspective: Organisations are seen as machines and communication is considered only in how it affects the functioning of this machine. This perspective is not people focused, and communication is broken down into small pieces that are not always seen as part of a much bigger world. Studying and practicing communication from this perspective is usually about measurement, prediction and strict control. The interpretivist perspective (also known as the adaptive or interactional perspective) is more about the human side of organisational communication. This perspective sees communication as a human phenomenon that cannot be strictly controlled and predicted. Interpretivist communicators sees humans as individuals and sees organisational communication as part of a bigger social system. Studying and practicing communication from this perspective is about understanding, about relationships between people, and considering the bigger context/setting. The critical perspective takes it one step further, and does not only recognise organisations and communication as human and unique to each setting, but it also sees organisational communication as being influenced by underlying power structures. The critical perspective says: that communication is not only what you see or only what you can understand easily, but happens in a way it happens also because of societal structures of power and domination that is not only here and now, but also historically contextual. There are many ways to approach organisational communication, but in the Department of Communication Science, we focus on the critical approach as our main perspective/approach. You will learn more about this approach in COM1513............ 30  L E AR N I N G U N I T 2 : Co nte x t u a lisi n g co m m u n i c at i o n In its critique of a “modern / colonial / capitalist / patriarchal world-system”, decolonial theory addresses the continuity of colonial power relations through the categorisation and representations of gender, race and class. It therefore aims for a transformation of Eurocentric epistemologies, stressing the importance of the production of knowledge in different (local) geopolitical contexts. By giving bodily experiences involved in the production of knowledge a central place, proponents of decolonial theory support a serious rethink of social sciences’ canons and methods. 2.5.2 FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE You will realise by now that we communicate with a reason in the workplace. There are different views about what the function of communication in the workplace are. Some people say it is to inform, persuade and motivate. Others say it is the means by which a manager ensures the cooperation of subordinates and is concerned with the exchange of meaning among members of the organisation. Communication can also be seen as the “glue” that binds the organisation together or that builds the very structure of an organisation. In our opinion, the most important functions can be summed up as the following: The informative function–to provide information to direct and coordinate behaviour to ensure the efficient operation of the organisation. An example would be to circulate an agenda for a meeting. The regulatory function – to guide, coordinate and control the activities of the organisation. The provision of an organisational constitution or code of conduct makes up some of the practical function in this regard. The integrative function – creating identity and uniformity in the organisation and achieve unity. The vision and mission statement unifies the identity and image of the organisation. The persuasive function –to communicate information in order to get members to cooperate and negotiate. Such functions would include arbitration and conflict management. 2.6 COMMUNICATING WITH MANY Public communication refers to a situation when a communicator transfers information to an audience (Carnege 2005) – the person communicates with many. The communicator does most of the talking, while the many listen. It’s when you stand before an audience or virtual platform and deliver a speech, in a formal or informal setting, to inform, persuade, entertain and teach (Zarefsky 2007). O’Hair and Wiemann (2012: 340) define public speaking as “a powerful form of communication that includes a speaker who has a reason for speaking, an audience that gives the speaker attention, and a message that is meant to accomplish a specific purpose”. Stated even more concisely, public speaking........... 31 CO M1511/1  is “the act of preparing, staging, and delivering a presentation to an audience” (Gamble & Gamble 2008: 3). Types of public speaking include: Speaking to inform (informative, argumentative speech) Speaking to persuade (facts, political rallies) Speaking to entertain (special occasions, ceremonial) Speaking virtually (teaching, conferences, business presentations) V I D E O AC T I V I T Y 2. 8: CO M M U N I C AT I N G W I T H M A N Y Watch the video from the link below. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i5mYphUoOCs As a presenter with a lot of information to share, how do you balance between underload and overload on your audience? Tips for Beginners in Public Speaking. Source: https://api.ndla.no/image-api/ raw/0JHVWQW5.jpg? Originator: Science Photo Library, Originator: NTB. Student presentation [Internet]. Rightsholder: Science Photo Library, Distributor: NTB. https://api.ndla.no/image-api/raw/0JHVWQW5.jpg? Note: Should this link be removed by its original poster, please contact the Module Coordinator for the video file. SPEAKING TO INFORM When speaking to inform, the speaker explains a concept to the audience. University lectures, as well as academic conferences, involve informative speaking. With this type of speaking, the most important aspect is the information that is being disseminated. The speaker is not trying to get the audience to agree with him/her, but to increase the listeners’ understanding and awareness. SPEAKING TO PERSUADE This occurs when a speaker is speaking to reinforce or change the attitudes, thoughts, or actions of a group of people. The aim is to influence and change their opinions to either favour or disfavour the subject matter. These speeches aim to influence and change the opinions of the audience. This can be daunting if their views are totally opposite from your own. What is important to remember here, is that you have to show your enthusiasm while speaking (Zarefsky 2007). Watch the video of Martin Luther King Jnr’s ‘I have a dream’ speech here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vP4iY1TtS3s. The speech was delivered in Washington, DC, on August 28, 1963. In his speech, King stood on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, before a crowd of more than 250,000 people, and called for an end to racism in the United States............ 32  L E AR N I N G U N I T 2 : Co nte x t u a lisi n g co m m u n i c at i o n H E R E’ S A N E X A M PL E… Party leader, Julius Malema, delivered a fiery speech that touched on the revelations at the state capture commission of inquiry, the land question, and the state of education in the country, among other issues: https://www. news24.com/news24/SouthAfrica/News/eff-leader-julius-malema-used-vbs- linked-loot-to-splurge-on-big-ticket-purchases-report-20190909 V IDEO AC TIVIT Y 2.9: Watch the video, which can be accessed via the link below. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fVN6EeeLdHk Explain how Malema uses his voice projection (para-vocalics) and other body language to influence his audiences. SPEAKING TO ENTERTAIN The goal of ceremonial speaking is to trigger an emotional response from an audience. It’s all about fostering an emotional connection with the people who are taking the time to listen to you. The goal is to engage, amuse, and interest the audience. The speech may include information about the occasion............ 33 CO M1511/1  SPEAKING VIRTUALLY Source: h  ttps://www.itprotoday.com/windows-and-user-productivity/ microsoft-productivity-tools-get-new-updates-integrations Online presentations require a group of students, colleagues or adults, who will listen to your presentation while you record. Owing to the Covid-19 pandemic, the entire world had to resort to meeting virtually using virtual platforms (OCDE 2020). Just because you are online, does not make public speaking any less important. You are just presenting in a different format. PUBLIC SPEAKING IN A MULTICULTURAL WORLD If you are an experienced public speaker, you may have noticed that your audience is changing, just as the world is changing. Most likely, you are seeing more people from other countries and cultures sitting in your audience. Public speaking, in a multicultural world, demands that you learn to adjust to other cultures, as well as to how people from other countries will respond to you, the public speaker (Wonder 2000). Here are some tips for speaking in a multicultural world: Know your audience As with any audience, learn as much as you can about the audience before your presentation. Find common goals Discover what you have in common and concentrate on the similarities, rather than the differences............ 34  L E AR N I N G U N I T 2 : Co nte x t u a lisi n g co m m u n i c at i o n Show respect for other cultures Avoid being perceived as ethnocentric – the tendency to believe that your culture is superior to others. If your audience members feel as if you are attacking their culture, they will inwardly defend themselves and tune you out. Learn to pronounce their names This is especially important if you will be calling on members of your audience or introducing one of them. Adapt to their listening preferences and reactions Audiences respond to speakers in various ways around the world. Learn all the nuances you can about how an audience may react. 12 AC TIV IT Y 2.10: PUBLIC SPE AK ING How do the following cultural issues impact public speaking in your country/community? Age Gender Language Religion Public speaking in a multicultural world is basically finding what you and your audience have in common, focusing on the similarities, showing respect for your differences, and adapting to their listening preferences (Wonder 2000). 2.7 CULTURALLY SENSITIVE COMMUNICATION Cultural sensitivity is a set of skills that enables us to learn about and understand people who are different from ourselves; thereby, becoming better able to serve them within their own communities. Cultural difference involves the integrated and maintained system of socially acquired values, beliefs, and rules of conduct, which impact the range of accepted behaviours distinguishable from one societal group to another. Cultural diversity makes communication difficult, as the mindset of people of different cultures are different, and the language, signs and symbols are also different. Different cultures have a different meaning of words, behaviours, and gestures. The way you communicate is affected by the culture you were brought up in. Culturally sensitive communication is defined as effective verbal and nonverbal interactions between individuals or groups, with a mutual understanding and respect of each other’s values, beliefs, preferences and culture............ 35 CO M1511/1  Communication involves people and their culture. Thus, culture is an important factor in communication (Singh & Rampersad 2010; Penington 1985). Particularly when people have different cultural backgrounds, culture has an important influence on communication. In this unit, we view both culture and communication as dynamic processes. That is, they should be the result of the creative, equal, interactive participation of members of a heterogeneous society in the process of mutual adjustment to different circumstances. H E R E’ S A N E X A M PL E… In a multicultural society like South Africa, where there is daily contact between African, Western, and Eastern cultures, it is evident that, although this diversity may lead to misunderstanding between the cultural groups, it also allows for interesting and stimulating community life (Singh & Rampersad 2010). 2.7.1 CULTURE Be aware of the impact of culture. You are communicating with individuals. Beware of assumptions. Culture gives useful clues, but don’t assume all people from a certain cultural background share the same beliefs and ways of behaving (Penington 1985). People are individuals and need to be treated as such. Start a conversation and find out what the person values and beliefs. All cultures are equal. The culture you were raised in is probably the one you feel most comfortable with – you understand the ‘rules’. This does not mean it’s ‘the best’ or ‘the only’ way people should behave. A ‘different’ culture does not mean a ‘lesser’ one. Language is often the most problematic cultural variable in intercultural communication. We use language as the primary means by which to transmit our beliefs, values, norms and worldview. Language develops in the context of a particular culture and, therefore, reflects that culture. Language also influences perception, transmits meaning and moulds our patterns of thought. Think about the different languages in South Africa. We have 11 official languages (name them maybe?), as well as 12 or more other languages spoken in our country (Marais et al. 1994:46). H E R E’ S A N E X A M PL E… If someone avoids eye contact with you when speaking, perhaps that’s the impact of culture – not that they are rude, shy or uninterested. Acknowledge it, understand it, and ask about it. You will need to learn and adjust to each other to ensure communication is effective and appropriate (Singh & Rampersad 2010). 2.7.2 LANGUAGE In communication between different cultures, and different racial and ethnic groups, language can pose major problems............ 36  L E AR N I N G U N I T 2 : Co nte x t u a lisi n g co m m u n i c at i o n H E R E’ S A N E X A M PL E… Not many South Africans are proficient in more than two or three languages and not all the cultural groups will attach the same meaning to the same words (Kaschula & Anthonissen 1995). Our understanding of language may differ. For instance, in Western society a speech is viewed as a means to express ideas and thoughts as clearly, logically and persuasively as possible, so that the speaker can be recognised for his or her individuality in influencing others. However, in other societies, for example, in some Eastern cultures, such as those in India and China, the attitude to speech is different, according to Kaschula and Anthonissen (1995). Here, words are only a part of, and inseparable from, the total communication context. In this context, the participants in communication and the nature of the relationships between them are also important. On a more practical note, the link between language and culture also leads to certain difficulties and misunderstandings, for example, translations from one language (culture) to another, and even in the curricula of universities. Asuncion-Lande (1990) describes a humorous case of a mistranslation of an Italian expression into English. It was reported in a newspaper that a certain group of monks were abandoning their traditional vows of celibacy. According to the report, a spokesperson for the monks said that they wanted to have intimo rapporto (closer friendship) with women. However, in the English newspaper the Italian phrase was translated to mean “sexual relations”! In the English language, t