Communication and Media Studies Book 1 (CCMAS) 2023 PDF

Draft for peer review Do NOT quote CCMAS Book Series: Communication and media Studies Book 1 Published by the National Universities Commission 26, Aguiyi Ironsi Street, PMB 237 Garki GPO, Maitama, Abuja. Telephone: +2348027455412, +234054407741 Email: [email protected] ISBN: CCMAS Fundamentals of Communication and Media Studies Book 1, 2023 Edited by Lai Oso Umaru Pate and Rotimi Olatunji is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Permissions beyond the scope of this license may be available at www.nuc.edu.ng. Draft for peer review Do NOT quote CCMAS Book Series: Communication and media Studies Book 1 NUC Management Professor Abubakar A. Rasheed (Executive Secretary and Chairman) Mr. Chris J. Maiyaki (Deputy Executive Secretary, Administration) Dr. Noel B. Saliu (formerly Director, Academic Planning; now Deputy Executive Secretary, Academic Dr. Suleiman Ramon-Yusuf (formerly Deputy Executive Secretary, Academics) Mr. Sam M. Onazi (formerly Director, Finance and Accounts) Mrs. Constance Goddy-Nnadi (Director, Establishment of Private Universities) Mr. Ibrahim U. Yakasai (formerly Director, Public Affairs) Dr. (Mrs.) Maryam Sali (Director, Accreditation)-late Mr. Boniface C. Odum (Director, Human Resources) Mr. John Mairafi Ahmadu (Director, Executive Secretary’s Office) Engr. Kayode S. Odedina (Director, Open, Distance and e-Learning) Mr. Sunday Bassey Essien (Director of Students) Mal. Lawal M. Faruk (Ag. Director, Research, Innovation and Information Technology) Mrs. Lydia Imoroa (Director, Inspection and Monitoring) Mr. Ashafa Ladan (Ag. Director, Skills Development and Entrepreneurship) Mrs. Rita U. Kenny-Ogwu (Deputy Director, Audit) Mr. Dele Omojola (Deputy Director, Physical Planning and Development) Mr. Musa Zamuna (Deputy Director, Internationalization) Mal. Kabiru Abdullahi (Deputy Director, Establishment Matters) Engr. Adamu H. Yakasai (Deputy Director, Procurement) Arc. Ikani Samuel (Deputy Director, Programme Accreditation) Barr. S.S. Adejoh (Director, Resource and Strategic Planning) Mr. Lawal Haruna Ajo (Deputy Director, Information) Mr. Mustapha Rasheed (Deputy Director, Master Plan and Infrastructure) Mrs. Margaret Oyedele (Deputy Director, IWES) Mr. Obi Ukwuagu (Deputy Director, Information and Communication Technology) Mrs. Alissabatu Balogun (Deputy Director, Federal University Monitoring) Barr. Paschal Eruaga (Chief Legal Officer) NUC Former and Serving Executive Secretaries Professor Jibril Aminu 1975 – 1979 Dr. Abel Goubadia 1979 – 1981 (Acted) Alhaji Yahya Aliyu 1981 – 1986 Professor Idris Abdulkadir 1986 – 1996 Professor Munzali Jibril 1996 – 2001 Professor Peter Okebukola 2001 – 2006 Professor Julius A. Okojie 2006 – 2016 Professor Abubakar A. Rasheed 2016 – Date Draft for peer review Do NOT quote CCMAS Book Series: Communication and media Studies Book 1 NUC Strategy Advisory Committee Professor Peter Okebukola, OFR - Chairman Professor Ruqayyatu Ahmed Rufa’i, OON - Member Professor Gambo Laraba Abdullahi - Member Professor Nimi Briggs, OON - Member Professor Michael Faborode - Member Professor Attahiru Jega, OFR - Member Professor Chiedu F. Mafiana - Member Mr. Tope Toogun - Member Dr. Suleiman Ramon-Yusuf - Member Mr. Christopher Maiyaki - Member Mr. Sam Onazi - Member Dr. Noel Biodun Saliu - Member Dr. Maryam Sali - Member Dr. Joshua Atah - Secretary Draft for peer review Do NOT quote CCMAS Book Series: Communication and media Studies Book 1 Foreword The National Universities Commission is empowered by the Education (National Minimum Standards and Establishment of Institutions) Act, CAP E3, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004, to lay down minimum academic standards in Nigerian Universities and to accredit the degrees therefrom. According to this and in its sustained commitment to the revitalisation of the Nigerian University System, the Commission launched the “Core Curriculum and Minimum Academic Standards (CCMAS)”, in December, 2022. The document has been adjudged by both internationally and locally revered scholars, as a standard and fit-for- purpose, designed to meet the demands of the 21st Century. To ensure the efficient delivery of the CCMAS, it has become fitting and necessary to develop a reference document that would contain innovative and simple topics for all disciplines/programmes to serve as a guide for students and lecturers. This novel idea informs the development of the CCMAS Book Series, which presents to Nigerian universities the fundamentals of each discipline, aimed at deepening the understanding of the CCMAS, for the overall improvement in teaching and learning, and ultimately, for the production of nationally relevant and globally competitive graduates from the System. The excitement and wide acceptance of the Book Series stems from the fact that several scholars in their respective disciplines sent in their contributions, which are rated topnotch in all ramifications. There is no gainsaying that the Book Series is a welcome masterpiece as it expounds what the CCMAS offers and the many lessons and motivations to draw from its optimal implementation, for the overall good of society. The effort of the National Universities Commission in the development of the CCMAS and following up with associated innovative initiatives like the CCMAS book series is commendable. Consequently, I congratulate the Executive Secretary, National Universities Commission, Professor Abubakar Adamu Rasheed mni, MFR, FNAL for adding another feather to his feather-filled cap within his relatively short period in NUC. Kudos must be given to the Distinguished Emeritus Professor Okebukola led NUC Strategy and Advisory Committee (STRADVCOM) and staff of the National Universities Commission for driving this process to fruition. There is no way this initiative can become a reality without the contributions of the scholars who developed the texual materials. Consequently, I laud the erudite scholars of Nigerian universities, who have demonstrated their love for academic excellence in sharing their knowledge with humanity through the instrumentality of this project. I commend the CCMAS Book Series to staff and students of Nigerian universities and indeed to scholars all over the globe as the contribution of the Nigerian University System to academic development and excellence. Happy reading. Malam Adamu Adamu Honourable Minister of Education Draft for peer review Do NOT quote CCMAS Book Series: Communication and media Studies Book 1 Preface In keeping with its mandate of making university education in Nigeria more responsive to the needs of the society, the National Universities Commission commenced the journey to restructure the BMAS in 2018, introducing in its place, the Core Curriculum and Minimum Academic Standards (CCMAS), to reflect the 21st Century realities, in the existing and new disciplines and programmes in the Nigerian University System. The arduous process, which was birthed through continued stakeholder interactions over the course of four years, produced seventeen documents to cater for each of the disciplines in the Nigerian University System. A key feature of the CCMAS document is the unique structure that provides for 70% of core courses for each programme, while allowing universities to utilise the remaining 30% for other innovative courses in their peculiar areas of focus. Following the conclusion of the development and review process as well as a series of editing, the CCMAS documents were launched in a grand ceremony on the 5th of December 2022. With the launch, the job of the Commission was far from over as this was only the beginning of a three-phase process in the development/review and implementation of the CCMAS document. Having completed phase one, which is the launching of the CCMAS, NUC proceeded to phase two, which involves the development of the 30% CCMAS by the universities. At the same time, the plan for capacity building for effective implementation of the CCMAS as well as the development of textual materials to support the implementation of the CCMAS were taken on board. The need to have customised (bespoke) texts to support the implementation of the CCMAS was pointed out by an erudite Professor (President of the Nigerian Academy of Education) during one of the General Assemblies and was processed through the NUC Strategy and Advisory Committee (STRADVCOM). Emeritus Professor Nimi Briggs was unanimously nominated as the Project Coordinator. The series of textual materials are called the CCMAS Book Series and titled Fundamentals Series in the first project. The contributors across the 17 disciplines have been drawn from the six geopolitical zones and proprietorship of universities such that there is collective ownership. The major denominator for selection was scholarship in the discipline, which was reflected in the narrative of each book. The various chapters showcase and give examples from local published research so that visibility can be given to ideas from Nigeria and Africa on the topics. While definitions and models from “western” scholars are mentioned, these are de-emphasised as much as possible. The time is ripe to show the world, through this book, that Nigerian scholars, over the last 70 years at least, have been in the frontline of research in the published topics and now able to provide generic and contextual definitions, models and examples in the respective disciplines for scholarly work the world over. The contents target the compulsory courses in the CCMAS and will be published in a series. As much as possible, the books attempt to sync with the levels of delivery of the curriculum that is 100 level; 200 level and so on. The books are written in very simple English, well-illustrated and rendered in the typical course-material format of objectives, content to be learned, summary, evaluation, exercises and references. Draft for peer review Do NOT quote CCMAS Book Series: Communication and media Studies Book 1 The Commission is optimistic that these series will serve as a guide to support the implementation of the CCMAS documents in the Nigerian University System and beyond and adequately equip the trainers and students in making university education more responsive to the needs of society. Professor Abubakar Adamu Rasheed, mni, MFR, FNAL, HLR Executive Secretary Draft for peer review Do NOT quote CCMAS Book Series: Communication and media Studies Book 1 Message from the Project Coordinator Emeritus Professor Nimi Briggs (RIP) With the launching of the 17 documents of the new Core Curriculum and Minimum Academic Standards (CCMAS) on Monday 5th December 2022 by Vice- President Professor Yemi Osinbajo, GCON, Nigeria’s National Universities Commission (NUC) accomplished a major feat in its quest to rapidly revitalise the nation’s university system.1 In this regard, the Commission working though its Strategy Advisory Committee (STRADVCOM), had, in 2019, identified 10 priority areas that needed urgent attention, one of which is, the introduction of a reengineered curriculum that addresses 21st century challenges. Such a curriculum, it was envisaged, should lay emphasis on skills acquisition and learning outcomes and should be able to stand side by side with those from the World’s best universities in the quality of its content as well as being relevant on issues affecting the local communities in which individual universities are located. Thus, CCMAS documents were developed to provide 70% of the contextual materials and compulsory credit units required for graduation at the bachelor’s level across the entire chain of degree courses offered by all universities in the country. That done, attention shifted towards enabling individual universities to develop the additional 30% of the curriculum from issues that are peculiar and relevant to their core mission and local circumstances, as approved by Senates of their individual universities, capacity building and training of staff on the delivery of the CCMAS and the production of books that would cover the contextual materials of the CCMAS. It is expected that utilisation of the CCMAS series in the Nigerian Universities System will commence in the 2023/2024 academic session. Stringent efforts were therefore made to conclude the production of the series of books, the first in the series, well in advance of that period. Nimi D. Briggs February 2023 Note: Sadly, Emeritus Professor Nimi Briggs passed on April 10, 2023. He is resting in the realisation that this project is “safely delivered”, he being a globally renowned scholar in obstetrics and gynecology. Draft for peer review Do NOT quote CCMAS Book Series: Communication and media Studies Book 1 Editors’ Note Communication is at the core of human existence and relationships. It defines us as human beings. The study of communication in its various forms is therefore essential and important in sustaining our society. Everyday all of us are surrounded by messages coming from different sources. This book is therefore designed to introduce the student to the ever-expanding world of communication and media studies. Contributions in Part 1 of the book introduce the students to the basics of human communication, its historic development, process and elements, functions and types of communication. Other chapters in this section examine the contexts and settings of communication. The main objective of the section is to get the student understand the basic concepts and principles in the study of human communication, and be able to relate them to his or her daily experiences. In Part 2, authors discuss how to write for the various arms of the mass media industry. We live in a mass mediated world. As a student of communication and media studies, writing is at the centre of a successful career in this mass media saturated world. Authors discuss various writing styles, techniques, formats for each of the professions or disciplines in the vast world of the mass media. The last part of the book is devoted to tracing and discussing the history of the mass media in Nigeria. The contributors examine the factors that have influenced the development of each segment of the media industry, from newspapers to public relations, within the Nigerian context. The basic aim being to let the student understand that the media do not exist in a social vacuum but are products of the society within which they exit and operate. As the media are said to influence the society, so also are they influenced by socio-historical, economic and political factors peculiar to each society despite the impact of globalisation and colonialism before it. It is our hope that lecturers and students of communication and media studies will find the book useful as teaching and learning text. Lai Oso, Umaru Pate and Rotimi Olatunji Draft for peer review Do NOT quote CCMAS Book Series: Communication and media Studies Book 1 List of authors and co-authors Title SURNAME First Name Institution Co-author Institution Professor OSO Lai Lagos State University Dr. Olalekan Lagos State University Hassan Professor PATE Umaru Federal University, Dr. Sharafa Dauda University of Kashere Abuja Professor OLATUNJI Rotimi Lagos State Prof. University of University Adepoju Lagos & Al- Tejumaiy Hikman e & Prof. University Olalekan Akashoro Professor AZEEZ Lukman University of Dr. Julius Adeyemo Lagos State Ilorin University Professor ESUH Peter University of Uyo Prof. Ajayi Crowther Muyiwa University; University Popoola & of Benin Dan Ekhareafo Professor CIBOH Rodney Benue State University Professor OJEBODE Ayobami University of Patience Joseph Sarwuan Ibadan Onekutu & Ladi Tarka Yakubu University; University of Ibadan Professor OGWEZZY- Abigail University of Babatunde University of NDISIKA Lagos Fautino, Lagos; Samuel Elizade Ejiwunmi & University Tosin Adesile Professor DUNU Ifeoma Nnamdi Onoja Ibe Federal University, Azikiwe Ben & Oye Ekiti & Lagos State University Stephen University Fatonji Professor OYEWO Yinka University of Ibadan Stephen ODEBIYI University of & Dr. Ayanfeoluwa Ibadan; Ajayi OYEWO Crowther University Draft for peer review Do NOT quote CCMAS Book Series: Communication and media Studies Book 1 Professor OMOJOLA Oladokun Covenant University Ngozi Morah Madonna University Professor UDEEZE Sunny Enugu State Prof. Godwin Rivers State University University; Okon & Ngozi Madonna Morah University Professor BASHIR Abdullahi Moddibo University Professor OGWEZZY- Abigail University of Lagos Prof. Ifeanyi Nsude, Ebonyi State NDISIKA Holyns Hogan & University; Covenant Kehinde oyesomi University Draft for peer review Do NOT quote CCMAS Book Series: Communication and media Studies Book 1 Professor GAPSISO Nuhu University of Maiduguri Aondover Eric Caleb University Msughter Professor JIMOH Jide Lagos State University Dr. Lagos State Hassan University Suleiman Professor POPOOLA Muyiwa Ajayi Dr. Agatha Ebonyi Crowther Obiageri Orji- State University Egwu University Professor KAYODE Jimi Lagos State Dr. Lagos StateUniversity, University, Olalekan Lagos Lagos Hassan Professor AKEREDOLU-ALE Bolanle Federal Dr. Semiu Bello Kwara State University of University Agriculture, Abeokuta Professor OYERO Olusola Anchor University Dr. Omolade Lagos State Atofojomo University Professor AYEDUN- Victor University of Unwana University of Lagos ALUMA Jos Samuel Akpan Professor TERNA KUR Jude Federal Joel Enugu State University of Asogwa, University; Taraba TechnologyMi Tordue State University nna Targem a Professor ASEMAH Ezekiel Glorious Vision Daniel O. University of Benin; University Ekhareafo, Taraba State Tsegyu Santas University Professor HUNGBO Jendele Kola Daisi University Professor OWENS-IBE Nosa Caleb University Marie Obasi Caleb University Professor CHIAKAAN Gbade Taraba State Lagos State Prof. Lai Oso, Dr. University Chamberlain University, Egbulefu, Dr. Benson Shadrach Idi Idahosa University; Nnamdi Azikiwe University Professor MOJAYE Eserinune National Open University Dr. Hajara Sanda, Bayero of Nigeria Charles University; Onwunali University of Lagos 13 Professor ODUNLAMI Dele Olabisi Onabanjo University Professor BASHIR Alli Kaduna State Dr. Noeem Lagos State University Thanny University Professor BABALEYE Taye Lead city Wole Adamolekun; Elizade University; University Dr. Olusola Omola Federal University, Ado-Ekiti Professor ESAN Oluyinka Caleb University Professor WILSON Joseph University of Maiduguri Dr. Musa Maina Federal University, Balka & Wilson Kashere; Bowling Fredrick Green State University, Ohio Dr. OKERE Samuel Babcock University Dr. Mufutau Lagos State Biobaku & Dr. University; Ajayi Kolawole Oni Crowther University 14 Notes on Contributors Lai Oso is a Professor of Mass Communication. He lectures in the Department of Journalism, Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Lagos State University, Nigeria. He is a member of Association of Communication Scholars and Professionals of Nigeria, (ACSPN), NIPR. Umaru A. PATE, Professor of Media and Society, has conducted and (co)authored several research publications. He is an Associate Member of the Network of UNESCO Chairs in Communication (ORBICOM); Vice-Chancellor, Federal University of Kashere, Nigeria; President, Association of Communication Scholars and Professionals of Nigeria (ACSPN) and a consultant for several international and national bodies. Rotimi Williams Olatunji, Professor, Public Relations and Advertising at the Faculty of Communication & Media studies, Lagos State University (LASU), where he also served as Dean of Faculty (2014-2021). He received his Bachelor of Arts from the Obafemi Awolowo University (Ife) and postgraduate degrees (M.A. & PhD) in Communication and Language Arts, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Joseph Adepoju Tejumaiye is Professor, Mass Communication at the University of Lagos, Nigeria. He is an expert in Political Communication with bias in the use of Integrated Marketing Communication, New Media and Social Media in Political Advertising. He is a member of the NIPR, APCON, ACSPN, IAMCR. Ganiyu Olalekan Akashoro, is Professor of Mass Communication, former Head, Department of Mass Communication and Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies, Al-Hikmah University. He is the current Deputy Vice-Chancellor of the University. His research interests are in the areas of Marketing Communication, Media Studies, Broadcasting, Film Studies and Communication Theory. Ayobami Ojebode was Professor of Applied Communication and Head of Department in the Department of Communication and Language Arts, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. He was a Visiting Scholar, Visiting Research Fellow, and trainer in advanced research design in universities and research institutes in Africa, United Kingdom, Europe and North America. His research interest is the intersection of communication, governance and communities. Abigail Ogwezzy-Ndisika is Professor of Mass Communication and has earned several academic and professional laurels. At present, she is the Director, Institute of Continuing Education (ICE), University of Lagos. Her teaching and research over the past twenty years were deepened and made manifest with streams of scholarships and grants for researches, fellowships and conferences, both local and international. She holds membership and fellowship of various sectoral and professional bodies. Olusola Oyeyinka Oyewo is Professor of Business/Organizational/Applied communication in the University of Ibadan. His research focus and interests include: Rumor, Diversity Studies, Applied Communication, Organizational and Business Communication, Business Journalism, and Fake News. He is a certified 15 University Programme accreditor. Oyewo is also a consultant/facilitator to some government and non-government organisations. He is the current Head, Department of Communication and Language Arts, University of Ibadan. Nigeria. Peter Jide Jimoh is Professor of Journalism and Media Studies at the Lagos State University. He obtained BSc and MSc in Mass Communication from the University of Lagos and MA and PhD in Media, Peace and Conflict Studies from the University of Ibadan. He is widely published. Muyiwa Popoola is Professor of Journalism, Communication and Media Studies at Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo. He is currently the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academics) of the University. He holds Bachelor of Arts and M.Sc in Mass Communication from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, and the University of Lagos respectively; and PhD in Media and Cultural Studies from the University of Ibadan. He his a member of several professional bodies and has published widely. Oluyinka Esan is Professor Broadcasting, Film and Development Communication at Caleb University, Imota Lagos Nigeria. Her teaching cuts across Radio/Television, Film, Advertising, and Journalism. A Commonwealth University scholar, she holds a doctorate degree in Sociology from the University of Glasgow (1993), B.Sc. (Hons.) Unilag; M.A degree, Ohio University, Athens Ohio, USA. Jimi Kayode is Professor of Journalism and Media Studies at the Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Lagos State University. He was a Director at the Nigerian Institute of Journalism before joining LASU in 2001. Kayode is a certified journalism trainer at the Poynter Institute of Journalism. His research focus includes health communication, media law and ethics, marketing communications and development communication. Rodney Saawuan Ciboh is Professor of Journalism and Media Studies in the Department of Mass Communication, Benue State University, Makurdi. He holds a Ph.D. from Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria (2010). He was the Head, Department of Mass Communication, Benue State University (2017-2021). He has taught full-time for 28 years. Nosa Owens-Ibie is Professor of Communication, Media and Development, and Vice-Chancellor, Caleb University, Imota, Lagos, Nigeria; the first to be appointed Professor of the University in 2011, and its first substantive Deputy Vice- Chancellor from 2018-2019. He his General Secretary of the Association of Communication Scholars & Professionals of Nigeria (ACSPN). He has consulted for WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, IOM, UNESCO, ActionAid Nigeria and other private, government and public entities. Sunny Emmanuel Udeze is Professor of Mass Communication, Enugu State University of Science and Technology. His first, second and third degrees are in Mass Communication. He is a consummate Communication scholar who has occupied sensitive positions in his institution including the Deanship of Postgraduate school. He has many publications to his credit. 16 Prof. Godwin Bassey Okon is of the Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt. His forte is Development Communication and Media Advocacy. He has, to his credit, many publications in national and foreign journals. He has also attended conferences across many countries. Teaching holds an undying passion for him. Azeez, Adesina Lukuman is Professor of Mass Communication and the Dean of the Faculty of Communication and Information Sciences, University of Ilorin. He holds a Ph.D. in Communication Studies from the University of Leeds, UK; B.Sc. and M.Sc. in Mass Communication, as well as M.A. in International Law and Diplomacy; from the University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria. Eserinune McCarty Mojaye, Ph.D., ORCID ID - https://orcid.org/0000-0002- 9571-7201, is a Professor of Mass Communication in the Department of Mass Communication, National Open University of Nigeria, Abuja. He is the Editor of Journal of Communication and Media Research (JCMR. Prof. Mojaye is also a member of the Editorial Advisory Board of Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly where he is an expert on Nigerian media, globalization and development communication in Africa. Email: [email protected] Oladokun Omojola is Professor of Journalism, Digital Humanities, and Mass Communication at Covenant University, Nigeria. He wrote for Daily Times and was The Guardian’s correspondent in Lagos before switching to academics. An inventor, model designer, and academic content creator, he has authored 100 publications with many of them indexed in Web of Science and Scopus. Sunny Emmanuel Udeze is Professor of Mass Communication, Enugu State University of Science and Technology. His first, second and third degrees are in Mass Communication. He is a consummate Communication scholar who has occupied sensitive positions in his institution including the Deanship of Postgraduate school. He has many publications to his credit. Bolanle Akeredolu-Ale, is Professor of Language and Communication and former Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic) at the Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (FUNAAB). She has served as external examiner to numerous universities in Nigeria and abroad. She has numerous publications to her credit. In addition, she is a member of a number of international and national academic associations and societies. She is presently one of the two University Orators at FUNAAB. Godwin Bassey Okon is Professor in the Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt. His forte is Development Communication and Media Advocacy. He has, to his credit, many publications in national and foreign journals. He has also attended conferences across many countries. Teaching holds an undying passion for him. Abdullahi Saleh Bashir is a Professor of Information and Media Studies and Dean, Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, University of Abuja, Nigeria. He is widely published in local and international journals and books. His areas of interest are media studies, ICTs and climate change communication. 17 Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso is a Professor of Journalism and New Media at the Department of Mass Communication, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. He holds a PhD in Mass Communication. Nuhu resides and lectures in Maiduguri. Nuhu’s teaching and research interests are in media and human rights, Public Relations, print media and new media. Jendele Hungbo is Professor of Journalism and Media Studies and Head, Department of Mass Communication, Koladaisi University, Ibadan. He holds a Ph.D. from the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa (2012). A former Cadbury Fellow at the Centre for West African Studies, University of Birmingham. Olusola Oyero, PhD, is Professor of Communication and Media Studies, Department of Mass Communication, Anchor University, Ayobo, Lagos. He is a Scholar of the African Council for Communication Education (SACCE) and teaches media theories, research, broadcasting and development communication among others at both undergraduate and graduate levels. Victor Ayedun-Aluma is Professor of Mass Communication and Social Change at the Department of Mass Communication of the University of Jos, Nigeria. He holds the PhD in Communication of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria and is an alumnus of the International Institute for Journalism, Germany. His researches and publications focus on the content, structure, process and influence of communication in Africa. Hyginus Ekwuazi, is Professor of Broadcasting & Film. He has taught courses in Film and Broadcasting at the University of Ibadan (undergraduate & postgraduate); Pan-Atlantic University (postgraduate); and at the National Film Institute, Jos, (undergraduate). He has published books and journal articles in film, creative works and broadcasting. He is a consultant and trainer to World Bank- GEM Capacity Building for Nollywod and CHOGM - Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, Abuja, Nigeria, 2003. Gbaden Chiakaan is Professor of Mass Communication with a specialization in Public Relations and Advertising. He lectures in the Department of Mass Communication at Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria. He is a member of many professional bodies, including the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (NIPR). Jude Terna Kur is Professor of Information and Media Technology at the Department of Information Science and Media Studies and the Acting Dean of the School of Information and Communication Technology (SICT), Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria. He teaches and researches in media and children, parental mediation, new media, communication research, writing for traditional and digital media, multimedia journalism, and science and technology reporting for the media. email address: [email protected] Ezekiel S. Asemah is Professor of Public Relations, Advertising and Behavioural Change Communication and the Dean, College of Management and Social Sciences, Glorious Vision University (formerly Samuel Adegboyega University), Edo State, Nigeria. He is the Deputy National President of the African Council for Communication Education (ACCE), Nigeria Chapter. 18 Ayodele Thomas Odunlami is Professor of Mass Communication (Broadcast Journalism) and Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago- Iwoye, Nigeria. Prof. Odunlami is the current Coordinator of Sub-Saharan Africa Research Regional Hub of the Journalism Education and Trauma Research Group (JETREG), a global research body based in the Lincoln University, United Kingdom. He is also a member of the ACCE, Nigeria Chapter and ACSPN, and Fellow, NIPR. Muhammad Bashir Ali is Professor of Mass Communication in the Department of Mass Communication, Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Kaduna State University. For over three decades he has been teaching different undergraduate and postgraduate courses which include public relations, advertising, media management, media economics, research, development communication, etc. He is currently the Deputy Vice Chancellor, Administration, KASU. Taye Babaleye is Professor of Mass Communication and Media Technology at Lead City University, Ibadan, Nigeria. He has more 70 academic articles published in reputable local and international journals. He is a member of the NIPR, ACSPN and Fellow of the Institute of Personality Development and Customer Relationship (FPD-CR). Josiah Sabo Kente is Professor of Public Relations and Behaviourial Change Communication and the immediate past Head of the Department of Mass Communication, Nassarawa State University, Keffi, Nassarawa State. He is a Fellow of the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (FNIPR); Fellow of the Nigerian Institute of Management (FNIM); and Member of the African Council for Communication Education (ACCE). Isiaka Zubair Aliagan holds a Ph.D. in Print Journalism from Universiti Sains Malaysia; also doctoral degree, History (Press & Politics) from University of Ilorin. He is currently an Associate Professor and Acting Dean, Faculty of Information and Communication Technology at Kwara State University, Malete, Nigeria. His main research interests include print and digital journalism, press and politics, new media technologies, social networking media, newspaper political economy. Wole Adamolekun, is Associate Professor, Mass Communication, Elizade University, Ilara-Mokin, Nigeria. He has authored three public relations books, co- authored chapters in books and published several scholarly articles in reputable journals locally and internationally. He is Fellow, Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (FNIPR); Fellow, Nigerian Institute of Management (FNIM); Fellow, African Public Relations Association (APRA) among others. Doris Ngozi Morah is Associate Professor at the Department of Mass Communication, Madonna University Nigeria. She is a former Head of the Department and a member of several professional associations. Her research interests are New Media, Broadcasting, AI, Journalism, International Communication, Social Media, Strategic Communication, Development Communication, Media Law, and Ethics. 19 Dr. Chamberlain Egbulefu is Associate Professor of Mass Communication at Benson Idahosa University, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. He specializes in Public Relations and Advertising. Hajara Umar Sanda is Associate Professor at the Department of Mass Communication, Bayero University Kano. She was the pioneering Sub Dean Academics in the Faculty of Communication Bayero University Kano. Her research interests include Health Communication, Investigative & Data Journalism, Print Journalism, Public Relations, Gender issues and Media studies among others. She is member of Fulbright Alumni Association of Nigeria (FAAN), IAMCR, NIPR, ACCE, ACSPN and AMCRON. Samuel Okere, is Associate Professor of Publishing & Media Studies at the Department of Mass Communication and Director of Babcock University Press, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria. Ruqayyah Yusuf Aliyu is a Senior Lecturer with Department of Information and Media Studies, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria. Her areas of research interest and publications span across Media/Press Freedom, Media Law and Ethics, Health Communication, gender and online journalism. She is a member of many national and international professional associations. Semiu Bello, is Associate Professor, Mass Communication, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago- Iwoye, Nigeria. His research interests cover print journalism studies, health and development communication, media literacy, mass media and society, communication theories, mass media research, new and digital media and public relations. Semiu has authored widely in international and national publications and is a member of numerous professional and academic bodies. Hassan Biodun Suleiman is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Journalism and Media Studies, Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos. His research interests include political communication and peace studies. He has published both locally and globally. Julius A. Adeyemo holds a Ph.D in Applied Communication from the University of Ibadan. He is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Public Relations and Advertising, Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Lagos State University. He has a bias for Human Communication, Media Relations and Crisis Management, Media Dialectics, Public Relations. Charles Chinedu Onwunali, is Senior Lecturer at the Department of Mass Communication, University of Lagos. His research interests cover Public Relations and Advertising, Mass Media History, Development Communication and Health Communication. A member of the worldwide Association of Educators in Journalism and Mass Communication, he is also a registered practitioner in Advertising (rpa) and member of Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (MNIPR). 20 Noeem Taiwo Thanny, is Senior Lecturer, Department of Public Relations and Advertising, Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Lagos State University where he teaches Development Communication, Strategic Communication, Behaviour Change Communication and Communication Campaign Planning. A 2017 Ford Foundation Grantee to the International School of Communication (ISOC), London. He is a member ACCE ACSPN. Omolade Atinuke Atofojomo is Senior Lecturer at the department of Broadcast, Faculty of communication and Media Studies, Lagos State University, Lagos. She has first degree in Theatre Arts from the University of Jos, Master’s degree in Communication and Language Arts from the University of Ibadan and PhD from Lagos State University. Patience Onekutu holds a PhD in Development Communication from the Department of Communication and Language Arts, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; an MA (Mass Comm) from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, and an MA from the University of Birmingham, England. Her research focus includes language and communication, development communication, and media studies. She is a member of several professional bodies and has authored books, chapters in books, and published articles in reputable journals. She currently lectures at Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University. Aondover Eric Msughter is an academic staff in the Department of Mass Communication at Caleb University, Imota, Lagos. Msughter is a communication scholar who has published papers in several national and international scholarly journals and attended and participated in several conferences and workshops on communication, media, and journalism. He is a member of the ACSPN, ACCE, AMCRON and Fellow of Social Science Research Council (FSSRC), USA. Daniel O. Ekhareafo, is Senior Lecturer and the Ag. Head of the Department of Mass Communication, University of Benin, Edo State, Nigeria. Tsegyu Santas, is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Mass Communication, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria. His core research interest areas are Journalism and Media Studies, Digital Media and Development Communication. He is the Deputy National Secretary of the prestigious African Council for Communication Education (ACCE), Nigeria. Agatha Obiageri Orji-Egwu, is Senior Lecturer at Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki. She had her First and Second degrees at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, and Ph.D at Ebonyi State University. She specialises in Public Relations and Advertsing. Sharafa DAUDA, teaches at the Department of Mass Communication, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria, and is a SUSI Fellow, Walter Cronkite School of Journalism, Arizona State University. Some of his research works are available online, in repositories like ORCID, Mendeley, SCOPUS and GoogleScholar. Muftau Olanrewaju Biobaku teaches Book Publishing and Development among others in the Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Lagos State University. 21 Olalekan Hassan, lectures at the Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Lagos State University, Lagos. He holds B.Sc Journalsm from Lagos State University; M.Sc (Mass Communication) from the University of Lagos, and Ph.D in Communication Studies at Lagos State University, Lagos. Unwana Samuel Akpan is Lecturer, Department of Mass Communication, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria. His teaching and research are in the areas of Broadcasting and Media Aesthetics, sport communication, African Communication Systems, and Diaspora Communication Studies. He was a Postdoctoral Fellow in the School of Communication and Media Studies, Howard University, USA. Matthew Kolawole Oni, teaches Book Publishing and Development among others in the Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo. Marie C. Obasi is Lecturer, Department of Mass Communication, Caleb University, Imota, Lagos. Her areas of interest are Broadcasting, Film and Multimedia, Environment Communication, Development Communication, Intercultural Communication and Conflict Reporting. Abubakar Jibril is Lecturer, Department of Information, Journalism and Media Studies, University of Abuja, Nigeria. He is widely published in both local and international journals and edited books. His research interests include Risk Journalism, Health Communication, Journalism and Society, Audience Analysis, Gender Communication and New Media. Ayanfeoluwa Oyewo is a communications scholar with a passion for the use of the media in the different sectors of society. Her areas of interest are media studies with specific focus on the media’s role in society. She is a lecturer in the Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo. Damilola Stephen Odebiyi obtained his B.A. and M.A. from the Department of Communication and Language Arts, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. His research interest covers the aspects of media studies and applied communication. He has some scholarly publications in reputable local and international academic outlets. Tordue Simon Targema is a Commonwealth Ph.D. Scholar at the University of Glasgow, United Kingdom, a Ph.D. Program he is running jointly with the University of Uyo, Nigeria. He teaches in the Department of Mass Communication, Taraba State University His research interests revolve around journalism studies, digital/social media and civic engagement, and media and conflict discourse/management. Joel Asogwa lectures in the Department of Mass Communication, Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT). He has published widely and presented scholarly papers at many conferences. He is a member of several professional associations including Association of Communication Scholars and Professionals in Nigeria. 22 Babatunde Adeshina Faustino is of the Department of Mass Communication, University of Lagos; and a staff of Unilag Radio and Television. He is an Associate Member of the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (ANIPR) and Associate Registered Practitioner of Advertising (ARPA); and member Association of Communication Scholars and Professionals of Nigeria (ACSPN). He is a laureate of Bloomberg Media Initiative Africa (BMIA). Samuel Ejiwunmi is Lecturer, University of Lagos, Department of Mass Communication. He has a BSc and MSc in Mass Communication from the same university. He previously worked at the Lagos State signage and Advertisement Agency. Samuel was also a recipient of the Erasmus Exchange grant at Birmingham City University, UK, for his PhD research on digital media, public relations, advertising, and political communication. Tosin Adesile teaches Journalism at Elizade University, llara-mokin, Ondo State. He is the Editor of his Departmental Journal of Innovative Communication and Media studies (JICMS). Before joining the academia, Adesile has worked in the media in various capacities. He holds a BSc (Hons) and an MSc degree in Mass Communication, both awarded by the University of Lagos. Mrs. Omolola Oluwasola is an experienced media personnel, erudite lecturer and researcher. She lectures in the Department of Mass Communication, Faculty of Social Sciences, Federal University, Oye- Ekiti, Nigeria. She specializes in digital strategic /promotional communication. Mrs. Oluwasola is a member of NIPR, ACSPN and AMCRON. Shadrach Idi is of the Department of Mass Communication at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. He is a member of the African Council of Communication and Education. Ladi Chenemi Yakubu graduated on top of her class in Mass Communication from Kogi State University, Ayingba and has just completed her Master’s degree programme at the Department of Communication and Language Arts, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. 23 Contents Message from the Project Coordinator..................................................................... 9 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION............................ 28 Chapter 1.................................................................................................................... 28 A Brief History of Human Communication............................................................ 28 Umaru Pate & Sharafa Dauda................................................................................. 28 Chapter 2.................................................................................................................... 39 Definition, Process and Models of Communication................................................ 39 Adesina Lukuman Azeez & Julius Abioye Adeyemo............................................. 39 Chapter 3.................................................................................................................... 72 Functions of Communication................................................................................... 72 Peter Esuh, Muyiwa Popoola & Dan Ekhareafo.................................................... 72 Chapter 4.................................................................................................................. 101 Communication and Perception............................................................................. 101 Lai Oso & Olalekan Hassan................................................................................... 101 Chapter 5.................................................................................................................. 116 Verbal Communication........................................................................................... 116 Rodney Ciboh.......................................................................................................... 116 Chapter 6.................................................................................................................. 133 Nonverbal Communication..................................................................................... 133 Ayobami Ojebode, Patience Onekutu & Ladi Yakubu........................................ 133 Chapter 7.................................................................................................................. 150 Interpersonal Communication............................................................................... 150 Abigail Odozi Ogwezzy-Ndisika, Babatunde Adeshina Faustino, Samuel Ejiwunmi & Tosin Adesile...................................................................................... 150 Chapter 8.................................................................................................................. 161 Group Communication........................................................................................... 161 Dunu Ifeoma Vivian, Onoja Ibe Ben & Fatonji Stephen..................................... 161 Chapter 9.................................................................................................................. 177 Introduction to Organisational Communication.................................................. 177 Oyeyinka Olusola Oyewo, Stephen Damilola Odebiyi & Ayanfeoluwa O. Oyewo................................................................................................................................... 177 Chapter 10................................................................................................................ 209 Mass Communication.............................................................................................. 209 Oladokun Omojola & Doris Ngozi Morah............................................................ 209 Chapter 11................................................................................................................ 227 24 International and Intercultural Communication................................................. 227 Sunny Udeze, Godwin Okon & Doris Morah....................................................... 227 Chapter 12................................................................................................................ 247 Digital Communication........................................................................................... 247 Abdullahi Saleh Bashir, Ruqayya Yusuf Aliyu & Abubakar Jibril................... 247 Chapter 13................................................................................................................ 258 African Communication Systems........................................................................... 258 Abigail Odozi Ogwezzy-Ndisika, Ifeyinwa Nsude, Holyns Hogan, Kehinde Oyesomi & Babatunde Adeshina Faustino........................................................... 258 Chapter 14................................................................................................................ 292 Ethics of Communication in the Digital Age......................................................... 292 Nuhu D. Gapsiso & Aondover Eric Msughter...................................................... 292 Chapter 15................................................................................................................ 311 Media and Information Literacy........................................................................... 311 Jide Jimoh & Hassan Suleiman.............................................................................. 311 Chapter 16.................................................................................................................... 322 Communication and Socialisation.......................................................................... 322 Muyiwa Popoola & Agatha Obiageri Orji-Egwu................................................. 322 Chapter 17................................................................................................................ 333 Public Speaking....................................................................................................... 333 Kente, Josiah Sabo................................................................................................... 333 PART 2: WRITING FOR THE MEDIA................................................................... 347 Chapter 18................................................................................................................ 347 Basic Principles of Media Writing......................................................................... 347 Jimi Kayode & Olalekan Hassan........................................................................... 347 Chapter 19................................................................................................................ 363 Writing for the Print Media................................................................................... 363 Bolanle Akeredolu-Ale & Semiu Bello................................................................... 363 Chapter 20................................................................................................................ 391 Writing for Radio.................................................................................................... 391 Olusola Oyero & Omolade Atofojomo.................................................................. 391 Chapter 21................................................................................................................ 403 Writing for Television............................................................................................. 403 Victor Ayedun-Aluma & Unwana Samuel Akpan............................................... 403 Chapter 22................................................................................................................ 417 Writing for Film...................................................................................................... 417 25 Hyginus Ekwuazi..................................................................................................... 417 Chapter 23................................................................................................................ 433 Writing for Multimedia.......................................................................................... 433 Jude Terna Kur, Joel Asogwa & Tordue Simon Targema.................................. 433 Chapter 24................................................................................................................ 448 Writing for Public Relations................................................................................... 448 Ezekiel S. Asemah, Daniel O. Ekhareafo & Tsegyu Santas................................. 448 Chapter 25................................................................................................................ 461 Writing for Advertising.......................................................................................... 461 Rotimi Olatunji, Adepoju Tejumaiye & Olalekan Akashoro.............................. 461 Chapter 26................................................................................................................ 484 Writing for Social Media........................................................................................ 484 Jendele Hungbo....................................................................................................... 484 PART 3: HISTORY OF THE NIGERIAN MEDIA................................................ 492 Chapter 27................................................................................................................ 492 Factors Contributing to the Growth and Development of Mass Media in Nigeria................................................................................................................................... 492 Gbaden Chiakaan, Lai Oso, Chamberlain Egbulefu & Shadrach Idi................ 492 Chapter 28................................................................................................................ 506 History of the Nigerian Press.................................................................................. 506 Eserinune McCarty Mojaye, Hajara Umar Sanda, Charles Chinedu Onwunali & Isiaka Zubair Aliagan......................................................................................... 506 Chapter 29................................................................................................................ 524 History of Radio in Nigeria..................................................................................... 524 Nosa Owens-Ibie & Marie Obasi........................................................................... 524 Chapter 30................................................................................................................ 541 History of Television in Nigeria.............................................................................. 541 Dele Odunlami......................................................................................................... 541 Chapter 31................................................................................................................ 553 History of Advertising............................................................................................. 553 Bashir Alli & Noeem Thanny................................................................................. 553 Chapter 32................................................................................................................ 565 History of Public Relations: The Nigerian Perspectives...................................... 565 Taye Babaleye, Wole Adamolekun & Oluswaola Omolola................................. 565 Chapter 33................................................................................................................ 577 History of Film and Home Video in Nigeria......................................................... 577 26 Oluyinka Esan.......................................................................................................... 577 Chapter 34................................................................................................................ 600 Internet and Social Media in Nigeria..................................................................... 600 Joseph Wilson, Musa Maina Balka, & Wilson Fredrick..................................... 600 Chapter 35.................................................................................................................... 611 Growth and Development of Book Publishing in Nigeria.................................... 611 Samuel Okere, M. Olanrewaju Biobaku & Matthew Kolawole Oni.................. 611 27 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION Chapter 1 A Brief History of Human Communication Umaru Pate & Sharafa Dauda Overview Communication as an act has been defined differently. However, what is indisputable is that it is a process. Each component of the process is essential for sharing meaning and creating understanding during information exchange, from a source to a receiver, through a channel. Information is shared within a context and when received, there may or may not be feedback (immediate or delayed), depending on the nature and form of communication. Communication is, therefore, continuous, always changing, depending on the circumstances, environment, situation, contexts and experience. This means that as individuals, groups, organisations or communities, we cannot not communicate and this process never ends although the actors, issues or interests may change. Overtime, human communication has metamorphosed in terms of shape, presentation and context. From simply speaking to one another, communication moved to carvings on leaves, walls and other materials although not without some limitations in terms of reach and effect. The invention of the Gutenberg press expanded the reach and influence of communication with the ability to print books, newspapers and magazines. Later, the advent of radio, television and the internet meant that human communication has left the shores of analogue to the digital hemisphere. This chapter explores the phases of these developments in the history of human communication. Objectives The objectives of this topic are to: 1. Examine the attributes of information. 2. Discuss the different eras of human communication. 3. Examine how information attributes influence communication across eras. 4. Analyse how digital technology is shaping human communication. Information Attributes Information attributes are the characteristics that influence a message and how it is received. Poe (2011) explains that these attributes include: accessibility, privacy, fidelity, volume, velocity, range, persistence and search ability. However, the influence of these attributes across different era are not the same. According to Poe, accessibility is the cost of getting and using a medium of communication; privacy is the cost of hiding the identity of users and the content of messages in a medium of communication; 28 fidelity is the degree to which data in a medium of communication is coded; volume is the cost of sending messages in a medium of communication relative to size; velocity is the cost of sending messages in a medium of communication relative to speed; range is the cost of sending messages in a medium of communication relative to distance; persistence is the cost of storing messages in a medium of communication relative to time; and search ability is the cost of finding messages [or information] in a medium of communication. These information attributes can impact the role of communication in society because communication contributes to society in various ways. Communication contributes to national development and increases awareness of citizens about human rights [e.g. freedom of expression, freedom of association and freedom of political association]. It contributes towards political participation, creates awareness among the people on developmental issues, holds the government accountable for its responsibilities and provides a platform for the common man to speak and express opinion (Dauda, Gujbawu, & Abana, 2021). Communication also allows an exchange of information, reduces uncertainties and establishes relationships through interactions (Pate & Dauda, 2015). It is also an instrument of socialisation, education, information and entertainment. For example, Nollywood films have proven to be a powerful medium of communication, entertainment and the transmission of cultural values with a lot of influence (Husseini & Sunday, 2019). Human Communication in the Speech Era In the era of speech, writing, printing, audio-visual content, or the Internet did not exist. Human beings communicated via face-to-face verbal interactions. Information flowed freely and easily because of the closed nature of communities. Major activities, e.g.: political, economic or cultural could not be hidden from the public. Of course, early humans had private lives and shared secrets too to some of their social activities like sexual intercourse and childbirth which were hidden from public observation (Poe, 2011). Meanwhile, in terms of privacy, hiding the identity of users and the content of messages weredifficult during the era of speech communication because people talked or listened to each other face-to-face. For instance, Hausa Language may be easily accessible as a language of communication in the community ‘A’ if members of that community speak and understand Hausa. So, when speaking to members of the community, the identity of the speaker is public knowledge. However, it becomes inaccessible to people of community ‘A’ if they can only speak other languages like Yoruba or Igbo. This may still be applicable in modern times in some small communities where communication is still fully dependent on face-to-face interactions. Similarly, lack of privacy as an attribute of information is also applicable in the above scenario since people’s identities are disclosed and where face-to-face conversations are public to members of a community. However, today, the anonymity provided by the Internet has facilitated more private communication among humans, where face-to-face exchanges may not be required Face-to-face 29 communication equally has high fidelity (credibility) if all five sensory organs could be used in enriching the experience. But its reliability or trustworthiness may also be low if the information from all five sensory organs (vision, sound, smell, taste, and feeling) is not properly used to complement each other. During the speech era, communication has high velocity and people in this era were characteristically speaking very fast. Since writing was not yet a means of communication at the time, people struggled to keep pace with the expressions of rapid speakers, unless where individuals have the skill to comprehend very fast. Likewise, when words were used to transmit information, the volume of information that was transmitted was low. The cost of conveniently sending and receiving messages to the size of the message was constrained since spoken words only allowed the exchange of small amount of information (Poe, 2011). Human voice is equally short in range (reach), therefore, speakers were expected to move closer to their audience or the number of people in the audience is kept small. The unaided voice is a broadcast medium and its signal moves over an area like a radio wave. (Poe, 2011). This makes communication in that era limited in reach to only nearby audiences. In the speech-era, communication was not persistent because it is transient. Although transient, spoken words can be remembered by those with good memories (Poe, 2011). Despite these challenges with spoken words, it is important to highlight that talking made it easy for people to speak and cooperate, share information, make better tools, impress members of the opposite sex, or warn others of danger. (Poe, 2011). This eventually led to the development of a ‘Talking Culture’ during the ‘Talking Era’. In about 150,000 years of human existence, from 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE, talking was the only medium of communication aside from gestures (Poe, 2011). Human Communication in the Manuscripts Age and Printing Era A manuscript is an original handwritten material. Different materials have been used across ages to produce manuscripts. Some of these materials include animal skin, clay carvings, carved woods, cave walls, animal bones and paper. In ancient times, writing was particularly promoted by hunter-gatherers, who settled into small villages and began to plan how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food. The accounting systems enabled them to track their materials and record transactions, which were initially tracked with actual objects that were used to symbolise the amount (e.g.: five pebbles represented five measures of grain). Clay carvings were later used as the primary method of record-keeping. For example, five dots might equal five measures of grain (University of Minnesota Libraries, n.d.). Poe (2011) explains that the ‘Manuscript Era’ began around 3500 BCE and marked the turn from oral to written culture. This evolution in communication was driven by the move towards creating settlements, which is by way, an agrarian lifestyle. The emergence of agrarian lifestyles led to the rise of class systems. Successful farmers became businessmen and took leadership positions. Religion also became more complex, and a new class of spiritual leaders emerged. There was a need for armies to protect resources and wealth from people who might want to steal it. The emergence of elite classes and the rise of armies required records and bookkeeping and this spread the use of writing. Religious leaders, the ruling elite, and 30 philosophers took up writing and the system became more complex. However, writing did not threaten the influence of speech communication. However, during the ‘Manuscript Era’, literacy (ability to read and write in any language), did not spread far beyond the most privileged in society (University of Minnesota Libraries, n.d.). Before the arrival of the Gutenberg press and subsequent printing technologies, the age of manuscripts made it easy for thoughts to be written and stored in permanent form, and this expanded the range (reach) of communication. It made it easy for more people to have access to information, across different ages and societies. Writing as a form of communication became possible with the invention of various systems of the alphabet. Lemaire (2008) explains that the origin of alphabetic writing is traceable to ancient Egypt in the southern Levant [a place in modern- day Israel, Palestine, and Jordan] or the Sinai [another place in Egypt] during the Egyptian Middle Kingdom in the 17th Century BC. Writing was further popularised by the invention of the printing press. It is generally acknowledged that a German goldsmith, known as Johannes Gutenberg, invented the printing press around 1436. It is important to emphasise that Gutenberg was not the first person to come up with the idea of movable type (letters), although he was the first to make it successful (Spilsbury, 2016). The Gutenberg press combined movable pieces of metal types that could be reused to produce sharp impressions on paper consistently. Most historical narrations credit the invention of paper to the Chinese and Spilsbury (2016) explained that in China, an early printing technique carved words into wooden blocks and pressed them onto paper around 600 AD (other accounts puts it earlier). Again, in China and Korea, another technique used movable wooden characters to create type on a page of paper. These techniques were unpopular because Chinese and Korean languages used tens of thousands of characters, which were too long to set on a page. By comparison, European languages have far fewer letters, so were ideal for movable type. This aided the Gutenberg invention and its improvement in technology (Spilsbury, 2016). The manuscript age and printing era made it possible to permanently document information. It also provided people with the opportunity to search for historical or other past information on issues or events in archives or libraries, and other locations where written materials are stored. This increased literacy (and education of Europeans and beyond because it brought about a rapid rise in how ideas could be reproduced in large numbers. At the initial stage of the Gutenberg press, books were restricted to privileged members of societies The Gutenberg press could print about 250 sheets per hour. This made it possible to produce books, and other texts quickly, accurately and less expensively. This was in the middle ages when books were largely expensive and rare. There is also the often-neglected history of medieval Arabic printing. Bulliet (1987) reports that Chinese prisoners in Samarqandi taught the Arabs the art of paper-making in 704. Judging from palaeography [i.e., the study of ancient writing systems, interpretation and dating of historical manuscripts] and the 8th Century 31 introduction of paper to the Islamic world, Arabic block printing began in the 9th or 10th Century but did not go beyond the 14th Century. Plate impression and engraving at the early age of the printing press Source: Britannica Encyclopaedia Online Human Communication in the Age of Audio-visual Media Audio-visual media and technologies encompass sound, radio, television, photography, film or movies. Before the invention of the radio, several sound recording instruments had been invented. According to Poe (2011), the first sound recording device known as the ‘phonautograph’ was invented in 1857 by Edouard- Leon Scott. In addition, the ‘phonograph cylinder’ was invented by Thomas Edison in the 1880s. Emile Berliner invented the ‘gramophone discs’ in the 1890s. Eadweard Muybridge experimented with ‘serial photography’ in the late 1870s before motion pictures came. In the late 1890s, Edison and the Lumiere brothers commercialised film, and movies assumed their modern form. 32 Scott’s phonautograph Edison’s first cylinder phonograph Berliner’s gramophone disc Source: McNeese et al. (2011) Source: McNeese et al. (2011) Source: U.S. Library of Congress Although speaking, writing, printing and radio, existed as media of communication, a new medium – audiovisual emerged in television, which combined the features of telegraphy, photography, telephony, recorded sound, radio and motion. Meanwhile, radio, which was introduced earlier in the 1890s, had proven its influence as a cheap and preferred medium of mass communication with its successes during World War II. The Germans and Allied forces used it to spread information and misinformation, entertainment and for propaganda, especially due to its accessibility and availability features that made it possible to target large numbers of citizens by the warring countries. The first discoverers of radio and television are still contestable because several inventors attempted before Guglielmo Marconi’s patent in 1896. However, the first recognisable commercial radio station was established in the 1920s while the first commercial TV broadcast began in the 1930s and TV technology was not widely adopted until the 1950s (Poe, 2011). Television was distinct because it had motion and people marvelled at the small ‘magic box’ that carried with it talking people, large cities, and huge equipment like ships and aircraft. Okigbo (1988) notes that TV became a very influential medium in all parts of the world where it was introduced. In Africa, Nigeria was the first to introduce TV broadcasting with the establishment of Western Nigeria Television Service (WNTS) in Ibadan in 1959. Esan (2009) notes that this was during Nigeria’s British Empire Service broadcast, controlled by Nigeria’s federal government. An official of the British federal government criticised a 1956 policy of Nigeria’s Western Region on the radio. When the Western Region Premier, Obafemi Awolowo requested to respond to counter that criticism, he was denied. Awolowo made several cases during a series of constitutional conference in London between 1957 and 1958 that regional governments should be allowed to control broadcasting affairs in their region. Consequently, the Eastern and Northern regions followed suit with the establishment of their regional broadcast outfits. 33 Audiovisual media is both accessible and inaccessible. It is cheap to access by the receiver compared to the sender. What the receiver needed was an affordable receiver, which has been made more accessible with advanced technology. The audiovisual media has, to an extent, bridged the gap of literacy because the audiences do not necessarily require the ability to read and/or write to comprehend the message as it is in the print media. The blind could listen and the deaf could also see, while someone with both senses could easily comprehend as long as s/he understood the language. Audiovisual media foster a dual network with more concentration on the part of the sender (Poe, 2011). It is inaccessible due to high budgetary requirements for content production and acquisition of broadcast equipment (e.g.: transmitter, signal tower, satellite, sound equipment, camera, stage and settings, microphones, among others), which are expensive and unaffordable to many. Equally, content production skills and innovation also require lots of financial investments and training, and only a few will be privileged to possess these too. Audiovisual also has privacy attributes. Poe (2011) explains that just like printing where consumption (reading) is mostly private, audiovisual media also transmits (sends messages) publicly and its audience (receiver) most times, receives it in private. One can then argue that while the broadcast radio or TV station is usually known, the recipient is most times anonymous, except where the desire for feedback reveals the identity of the receiver. Meanwhile, despite the exploits of audiovisual media, older media forms like speech, radio and newspapers are still relevant. Like previous media forms, audiovisual media did not eliminate existing media forms. They existed side by side and society began to witness the era of media convergence, which emerged after the invention of the Internet and other digital technologies. Human Communication in the Internet era The Internet is a network of computers, which allows the global exchange of data or information (Aslam, 2012). This gives users access to abundant textual, audio and audiovisual content that can be deployed for various purposes. It has revolutionised global communication and created new forms of interaction. It allows people to share personal experiences on online platforms, and start a blog to express attitudes or emotions with Emojis and animated Graphics Interncharge Formats (GIFS) while chatting with friends. The Internet also decentralised information dissemination, entertainment and media-based interactions on a mass scale through the world wide web, telephone, E-mail, pagers, two-way radio and fax (Aslam, 2012). The Internet was invented through international collaboration. Its inventors came from Cyclades, a French government-sponsored computer network; England’s National Physical Laboratory; the University of Hawaii and Xerox. However, it was driven by the U.S. Defence Department’s lavishly funded research programme and its many contractors. The programme became known as the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), which became the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) (Tarnoff, 2016) and later renamed the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET). 34 The Internet did not historically start as a public network. It was initially a military communication network before it evolved into a vast global cyberspace. The military specifically built ARPANET in 1969 as a way to bring computing to the forces who were fighting on the front lines (Tarnoff, 2016). The establishment of ARPANET linked computer mainframes at universities and government agencies with defence contractors. By the mid-1970s, it has grown fast across 60 locations. Due to the gigantic size of the computers in ARPANET, they could only communicate over fixed computer terminals. This worked for researchers because they naturally sit on computer terminals in fixed locations but it did not work for the military who were deployed in enemy territories (Tarnoff, 2016). So, researchers who needed information that have been stored in other computers either travelled to the site of those computers or copy it on magnetic computer tapes and have it transported through the post office system (University System of Georgia, n.d.). For ARPANET to be useful to forces in the field, it had to be accessible anywhere in the world (Tarnoff, 2016). The Internet brought about what was initially alien to human communication – anonymity and this continues to affect privacy as an attribute of information. Although human are behind the computers, often, those behind the computers may not know each other. Since its invention, the Internet has developed significantly serving both good and sometimes bad purposes. In terms of accessibility, information is easily accessible on the Internet although such information can also be misleading. The Internet and other digital technologies continue to change how people communicate across societies. They are enhancing and changing communication habits, increasing access to information and providing alternative communication platforms Regarding the Internet, Velocity refers to the speed with which data on the Internet is transmitted and consumed, while volume refer to the big data that is available across the networks. The world is today driven by the exploits of big data. People are experiencing information overload and are struggling with the overflow of information on the Internet. In a split second, a piece of information that was news can become stale. For instance, news is no longer updated on the hour, but by the minute and second, as they break. Humanity is on a race to catch up with digital technologies and innovations. Scholars (such as Wilson & Jibrin, 2019) have submitted that while digital technologies have created some challenges, technologies like the Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be used to resolve the challenges. Some of these challenges include hate speech, cyberbullying, phishing, catfishing etc. In partnership with the government, bloggers, online news media, security agencies and service providers can automatically detect and swiftly delete, hide, block/remove users, filter or review users who misapplied these technologies. Similarly, the search ability attribute of information on the Internet outmatches what existed pre-Internet era. Digital communication on the Internet provides opportunities for information to be stored, searched, or retrieved after long periods of use, restored for future use, and deployed for different purposes. The fidelity (credibility) of information on the Internet can sometimes be questionable, although the Internet also provides tools on how to fact-check information and 35 ascertain the veracity of the information on the Internet. The problem is that a lot of Internet users lack digital media literacy skills to understand the dynamics of information warfare and manipulation. They also do not possess the ability to distinguish false from true information in the online environment. There are also individuals who have mastered the art and science of information distortion and manipulation. These agents understand the psychology of the online audience, and how to manipulate the immediacy, interactivity, convergence, multimediality, anonymity, and virality of the Internet to serve selfish interests. Internet continues to be a strong influencer of global communication that influences communication on the social media. The most resounding information manipulation phenomenon on social media occurs in the political landscape, media industry, as well as media and information literacy (MIL). This manipulated information is easily and massively circulated on social media platforms. Scholars note that people react differently to manipulated news on social media (see Duffy, Tandoc, & Ling, 2020; Jang & Kim, 2018). In Nigeria, social media is a major source of news (Pate, Oso, & Dauda, 2017). It is a platform where various forms of interactions take place. An increasingly global and popular phenomenon for circulating fake news in Nigeria is deepfake – a form of Artificial Intelligence (AI) used to make images of fake events (Sample, 2020). The AI in deepfake technology produces modified content that looks real. Using deep learning algorithms, the tool produces synthetic media that is identical to an original. Although the technology is not new, it has dramatically expanded recently and has been utilised for different objectives, including pushing false political narratives (Adeyemi, 2023). Historically, the first widely-known example of AI-manipulated, face swap videos appeared in November 2017 (Paris & Donovan, 2019). Deepfake technology is deployed to fake sensitive conversations of political figures and stir controversies (Adeyemi, 2023). Another form of audiovisual manipulation is known as cheap fakes – which relies on cheap, accessible software, or no software at all (Paris & Donovan, 2019), to create these audio-visual fakes. Summary This chapter briefly traced the origin of human communication from the era of speech, through the manuscripts and printing ages, to the audio-visual and Internet eras. It showed that communication is a continuous and evolving process and attributes of information specifically influence communication differently across eras. The chapter explored the phases of the developments of human communication in history. It identified the specific attributes of information in communication; different eras of human communication; how information attributes influence communication across eras; and highlighted some of the ways that digital technology is aiding the manipulation of information, with a bias towards the Nigerian environment. 36 Exercises 1. Identify communication attributes and their characteristics. 2. Describe how communication attributes influence the evolution of human communication. 3. Use a pie chart to recall how much time you use to speak, write, or search for educational or other types of resources daily, weekly or monthly. 4. Describe the specific attributes that enhanced or limited the value of information in the history of communication. 5. Describe the historical accounts of the age of manuscripts and printing. 6. Describe how the Internet emerged. 7. Identify and briefly describe key phenomena that are defining the digital information era in Nigeria. References Adeyemi, I. (2023). Explainer: How to spot deepfake audio clips blended by artificial intelligence tools. Retrieved April 4 https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/591505-explainer-how-to-spot- deepfake-audio-clips-blended-by-artificial-intelligence-tools.html Aina, S. (2002). Oramedia in the development process. In L. Oso (Ed.), Communication and Development: A Reader (pp. 171-187). Ibara: Abeokuta: Jedidah Publishers. Aslam, M. (2012). A diagrammatic study of different models of mass- communication. Global Journal of Human Social Science Arts & Humanities, 12(13), 26-30. Britannica Encyclopaedia Online. Retrieved from https://cdn.britannica.com/66/6766-050-C9C8F965/plate-Impressio- Librorum-engraving-drawing-Nova-Reperta-1605.jpg Bulliet, R. W. (1987). Medieval Arabic tarsh: A forgotten chapter in the history of printing. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 107(3), 427-438. doi:10.2307/603463 Dauda, S., Gujbawu, M., & Abana, A. (2021). Rethinking communication and journalism training in Nigeria. Dutse International Journal of Social and Economic Research (DIJSER), 7(2), 193-203. Duffy, A., Tandoc, E., & Ling, R. (2020). Too good to be true, too good not to share: the social utility of fake news. Information Communication & Society, 23(13), 1965-1979. Encyclopedia Britannica. (2023). Morse Code communications. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Morse-Code Esan, O. (2009). Nigerian television: Fifty years of television in Africa. Princeton, New Jersey: AMV Publishing. Guardian Nigeria. (2022). Social media trends in Nigeria in 2022. Retrieved from https://guardian.ng/technology/social-media-trends-in-nigeria-in-2022/ Husseini, S. H., & Sunday, O. A. (2019). From Nigeria film industry to Nollywood: Land-marking the growth of the new wave cinema. In B. A. Musa (Ed.), Nollywood in Glocal Perspective (pp. 25-43). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. 37 Jang, S. M., & Kim, J. K. (2018). Third person effects of fake news: Fake news regulation and media literacy interventions. Computers in Human Behavior, 80, 295-302. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.034 Lemaire, A. (2008). The spread of alphabetic scripts (c. 1700-500 BCE). Diogenes, 55(2), 45-58. doi:10.1177/0392192108090738 McNeese, A. R., Sagers, J. D., Lenhart, R. D., & Wilson, P. S. (2011). A homemade Edison tinfoil phonograph. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 12(1), 025001. Okigbo, C. (1988). Television in the lives of Nigerian youth. Enugu: Delta Publications (Nigeria) Limited. Paris, B., & Donovan, J. (2019). Deepfakes and cheap fakes: The manipulation of audio and visual evidence. Data and Society.. https://datasociety.net/wp- content/uploads/2019/09/DS_Deepfakes_Cheap_FakesFinal-1-1.pdf Pate, U. A. (2015). Issues in media and national integration in Nigeria. Ojo: Lagos State University. Pate, U. A., & Dauda, S. (2015). Cross-cultural communication, peace education and national development in Nigeria. In I. Ndolo & C. Onwumechili (Eds.), Nigeria: Development Communication and Interrogating the Field (pp. 178-191). Enugu: Rhyex Kerex Publications. Pate, U. A., Oso, L., & Dauda, S. (2017). Social media news aggregation trends, news values and implications on the process of development in Nigeria. In Y. T. G. Azemard (Ed.), Numerical Humanism: Values and Models for Tomorrow. Paris: Centre Mobius International. Poe, M. T. (2011). A history of communications: Media and society from the evolution of speech to the internet: Cambridge University Press. Sa

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