Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation 2024-2025 PDF

Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation Dr. Itır Kaşıkçı 2024-25 Fall / BAU Psychology Encoding & Retrieval Encoding: The process of acquiring information and transferring it into LTM. Encoding versus Coding Coding: The form in which info is repres...

Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation Dr. Itır Kaşıkçı 2024-25 Fall / BAU Psychology Encoding & Retrieval Encoding: The process of acquiring information and transferring it into LTM. Encoding versus Coding Coding: The form in which info is represented. Visual, auditory, semantic.. Encoding: the process used to get info into LTM. Rehersal, memory strategies.. Retrieval: The process of transferring information from LTM to working memory. Retrieval of info from LTM is directly related to encoding. Encoding How encoding can influence the ability to retrieve memories? Different types of rehearsal Level of processing theory Encoding strategies: 1. Forming visual images 2. Linking words to yourself 3. Generating information 4. Organizing information 5. Relating words to survival value 6. Retrieval practice Rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal: Rehearsing without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other info. Typically results in poor memory. Elaborative rehearsal: Remember by considering meaning or making connections to other info. Typically, in better memory. Levels of Processing Theory Memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives (Craik and Lockhart, 1972). Shallow processing: Little attention to meaning. Deep processing: Close attention, focusing on an item’s meaning and relating it to something else. The theory became less popular when it became apparent that it was difficult to define exactly what depth of processing is. Circular reasoning. Forming Visual Images Paired-associate learning A list of word pairs is presente Later, the first word of each pai d. is presented, and the subject’s r task is to remember the word it was paired with. Bower and David (1970). Presented a list of 15 pairs of nouns. First group was told to silently repeat the pairs. Second group was told to form a mental picture in which the two items were interacting. Linking Words to Yourself  Self-reference effect (T. B. Rogers et al, 1977):  Memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself. Generating Information  Generation effect (Slameka & Graf, 1978): Generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention.  Relating Words to Survival Value «We can understand how memory works by considering its function, because, through the process of evolution, memory was shaped to increase the ability to survive.» (Nairne, 2010). Nairne and coworkers (2007, 2008) showed that linking words to survival created memory that was better than other strategies. Whether this advantage is due to evolution is debated among memory researchers, but there is no question that relating words to something meaningful and potentially important like survival does enhance memory. Retrieval Practice Testing effect: Enhanced performance due to retrieval practice (test). Organizing Information Subjects spontaneously organize items as they recall them (Jenkins & Russell, 1952). When words are presented in an organized way during encoding it results in better memory (Bower et al, 1969). Preventing organization from happening reduces the ability to remember (Bransford & Johnson, 1972). Retrieval cue: A stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory. Retrieval Retrieval Cue: Stimuli that help us remember information stored in our memory. Free recall vs cued recall Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval Retrieval can be increased by matching the conditions at retrieval to the conditions that existed at encoding. 1. encoding specificity—matching the context in which encoding and retrieval occur. Diving experiment (Godden &Baddeley, 1975). 2. state-dependent learning— matching the internal mood present during encoding and retrieval. Mood experiment (Eich & Metcalfe, 1989) 3. transfer-appropriate processing—matching the task involved in encoding and retrieval. Rhyming vs meaning experiment (Morris et al, 1977) Deeper processing at encoding does not always result in better retrieval, as proposed by levels of processing theory. Effective Studying 1. Elaborate rehearsal Using different strategies 2. Generate & Test Think about possible questions and answer them. 3. Organize information 4. Take breaks Spacing effect: Memory is better when studying is broken into a number of short sessions. 5. Avoid «Illusions Of Learning» Fluency, familiarity effect vs learning Memory and the Brain (Micro) «Learning and memory are represented in the brain by physiological changes that take place at the synapse.» Hebb (1948) Synapse is strengthened by; Structural changes Greater transmitter release Increased firing rate «Changes that occur in the hundreds or thousands of synapses that are activated by a particular experience provide a neural record of the experience.» Hebb Memory and the Brain (Macro) Memory does not occur in one specific place. It is distributed across many different brain areas. Frontal cortex ~ Working memory Hippocampus ~ Forming new LTMs (explicit) Perirhinal cortex ~ Encoding Parahippocampal area ~ Remembering spatial information Enthorhinal cortex ~ Recognition memory Amygdala ~ Emotional memory Memory and the Brain (Macro) Memory does not occur in one specific place. It is distributed across many different brain areas, Consolidation The process that transforms newly formed memories from a fragile state to a more permanent state. Remote memories—memory for events that occurred long ago. Graded amnesia: memory for recent events is more fragile than memory for remote events.  Consolidation Synaptic consolidation: Occurs at synapses and happens rapidly, over a period of minutes. Structural changes at a synapse. (Figure 7.16) Systems consolidation: Involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a longer time scale, lasting weeks, months, or even years. Standart Model of Consolidation Hippocampus is important for consolidaiton, not activeted after consolidation is complete – for remote memories. The Multiple Trace Hypothesis Hippocampus is involved also in the retrieval of remote memories, especially episodic memories. The Standard Model of Consolidation  Reactivation (@Standart Model) The major mechanism of consolidation. During reactivation, activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex. This activity results in the formation of connections between the cortical areas. Reactivation process occurs during sleep or during periods of relaxed wakefulness, and can also be enhanced by conscious rehearsing of a memory. Eventually, the cortical connections become strong enough so that the different sites in the cortex become directly linked, and the hippocampus is no longer necessary. According to the standard model of consolidation, the hippocampus is strongly active when memories are first formed but become less active as memories are consolidated, until eventually only cortical activity is necessary to retrieve remote memories. Are Memories Ever “Permanent”? When a memory is reactivated, it becomes fragile, just as it was immediately after it was first formed.. After a memory is reactivated, it must undergo Reconsolidation. Just as the original memory is fragile until it is consolidated for the fi rst time, a reactivated memory becomes fragile until it is reconsolidated. Nader’s anysomycin experiment.(2000) anisomycin, an antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis Brunet’s probanolol experiment. (2008) Probanolol: A drug that blocks production of a stress hormone in the amygdala. Resources: Goldstein, E.B. (2011). Cognitive Psychology. Cengage Learning, Wadsworth. 3rd Ed. Chapter 4. Next week: Memory 4 – Everyday Memory