Cognitive Psychology: Exam Reviewer - Midterms - PDF

BPSY 90 COGPSY 2ND SEM REVIEWER MIDTERMS Psychological Antecedents of Cognitive Psychology WEEK 2-3 Comparison of Theoretical Perspectives INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY...

BPSY 90 COGPSY 2ND SEM REVIEWER MIDTERMS Psychological Antecedents of Cognitive Psychology WEEK 2-3 Comparison of Theoretical Perspectives INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY ​ Structuralism Cognitive Psychology. Study of how people ○​ Focus: Understanding the structure of perceive, learn, remember and think about the mind information (Sternberg, 2012). ○​ Proponents: Wilhelm Wundt, Edward -​ Study of mental processes, which Titchener includes determining the characteristics ○​ Method: Introspection and properties of the mind and how it ○​ Example: Participants think aloud while operates (Goldstein, 2020). solving puzzles. ​ Functionalism Cognition. Mental action or process of acquiring ○​ Focus: Understanding the processes of knowledge and understanding through thought, the mind experience and senses. ○​ Proponents: William James, John Dewey THE MIND ○​ Method: Pragmatism ​ Creates and controls mental functions such ○​ Example: Studying learning and as, perception, attention, memory, emotions, memory to improve student language, deciding, thinking and reasoning. performance. ​ A system that creates representations of the ​ Associationism world so that we can act within it to achieve our ○​ Focus: Association of different elements goals. ○​ Proponents: Hermann Ebbinghaus, Edward Thorndike HISTORY OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY ○​ Method: Observation ​ THESIS - statement of belief. ○​ Example: Forming associations ​ ANTITHESIS - a statement that counters a between stimuli and responses. previous statement of belief. ​ Behaviorism ​ SYNTHESIS - integrates the most credible ○​ Focus: Focus on observable behaviors features of each of two views. ○​ Proponents: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner ○​ Method: Experimentation, conditioning History of Cognitive Psychology ○​ Example: Reward-based learning in ​ Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics: Focused on students. thought, memory, and the "ka" (soul). ​ Gestalt Psychology ​ Empiricist View: Knowledge comes from ○​ Focus: The whole is more than the sum experience. of its parts ​ Nativist View: Knowledge is innate, based on ○​ Proponents: Max Wertheimer, brain structure. Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka ○​ Method: Self-report Ulric Neisser. Founder of Cognitive Psychology ○​ Example: Seeing patterns in visual perception. Plato. He is a rationalist. Believes that the road to knowledge is through thinking and logical analysis. Emergence of Cognitive Psychology As Science Aristotle. He is an empiricist. Believes that we acquire knowledge through empirical evidence Karl Spencer Lashley which is obtained through experience and -​ Former student of Ivan Pavlov who challenged observation. the behaviorist view that “the human brain is passive organ merely responding to -​ Cognition has been studied scientifically environmental contingencies” (Garder,1985.) since the end of the 19th century. -​ Instead, he viewed the brain to be an active, -​ Introspection, or looking within, allowed dynamic organizer of behavior. the observer to examine consciousness and the structure of mental representation by breaking down an experience into sensations and images. Reviewer by: Joyce Bristol 1 Donald Hebb Neurons -​ Canadian Psychologist who proposed the -The basic elements of behavior concept of cell assemblies (coordinated -​ Building blocks of the nervous system and neural structures that develop through they are special types of cells. frequent stimulation) as the basis for learning -​ If our body is made up of cells, our nervous in the brain. system is made up of nerve cells also known as -​ He emphasized that these assemblies NEURONS develop overtime as the ability of one -​ Basic cell that makes up the nervous system for neuron (nerve cell) to stimulate firing of a digestion. connected neuron increases. Glial Cells Ulric Neisser -​ Provide support for the neurons to grow on -​ Founder of Cognitive Psychology and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, -​ Published a textbook entitled “Cognitive produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste Psychology” which paved the way on products and dead neurons etc. expanding the understanding of the human mind by synthesizing internal factors and observational findings. Noam Chomsky -​ A linguist who reviewed a book written by B.F Skinner which talks about how language acquisition and usage could be explained purely by environmental contingencies. -​ He stressed that ‘we learn language not by reinforcement but through its biological basis and the creative potential.’ Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology ​ Self-reports ​ Laboratory or other controlled experiments ​ Psychobiological research PARTS OF A NEURON ​ Computer simulations and artificial intelligence 1.​ Dendrites:. Branch-like structures of a neuron ​ Case studies that receives messages from other neurons. ​ Naturalistic observation 2.​ Soma: The cell body of a neuron responsible for WEEK 4-5 maintaining the life of the cell. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR 3.​ Axon: Carries messages to other neurons. It Nervous System - It is the pathway for instruction is the elongated part in a neuron. that permits our bodies to carry out different activities. 4.​ Axon Terminals: Enlarged ends of axonal branches of the neuron. Communicate with other cells. 5.​ Terminal Buttons: Small bulges at the end of axons. Release neurotransmitter molecules. 6.​ Myelin Sheath: Protective coating of fat and protein that wraps around the axon like the casing on links of sausages. Speeds up signal transmission. Types of Neurons 1.​ Sensory Neurons: Receive sensory information. 2.​ Motor Neurons: Control movement. Functions of the Nervous System 3.​ Mirror Neurons: Fire both when performing an Control movement action and observing it. Regulate body temperature Maintain homeostasis Reviewer by: Joyce Bristol 2 How Neurons Fire collection of neurons and glial cells that controls all the major functions of the body; 1.​ All-or-None Law: Neurons are either on or off. produces thoughts, emotions, and behavior; and makes us human. 2.​ Resting State: Neuron maintains a negative 2. Spinal Cord- pathway of connecting the brain charge. (-70 millivolts within a neuron. and the PNS. 3.​ Action Potential: Electrical nerve that travels through a neuron's axon when it is set off by a Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) “trigger", changing the neuron's charge from 1. Autonomic - regulates glands, internal negative to positive. organs and blood vessels, pupil dilation, digestion and blood pressure. Where Neurons Meet 2. Somatic - carries sensory information and controls movement of the skeletal muscles. Synapse - the space between two neurons where the The Human Brain axon of a sending neuron communicates with the -​ Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical (fMRI) measures the small changes in blood messages. flow that occur with brain activity. ​ Reuptake - the reabsorption of 3 Major Regions of the Brain neurotransmitters by a terminal button. Six Neurotransmitters ​ Acetylcholine: Regulates learning, memory, and muscle movement. ​ GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid): Inhibits the activity of neurons and helps to regulate anxiety. ​ Glutamate: Excites the activity of neurons and 1. Hindbrain - responsible for regulating breathing, plays a role in learning and memory. heart rate, arousal and other basic functions of ​ Norepinephrine: Regulates attention, arousal, survival. Oldest brain region. and stress response. ​ Endorphins: Regulate pain and pleasure. Medulla Oblongata (reflexes): This is the lowest ​ Dopamine: Regulates mood, motivation, and part of the brainstem and is responsible for regulating reward. Correlates with schizophrenia and many of the body's automatic functions, such as Parkinson’s disease. breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Juncture at which nerves cross from one side of the body to the Structure of Nervous System opposite side of the brain. Pons: This is a bridge-like structure that connects the medulla oblongata to the midbrain and is involved in regulating breathing, swallowing, and facial movement. Contains neural fibers that pass signals from one part of the brain to another. Cerebellum: “Little Brain”. This is located behind the brainstem and is responsible for body movement, balance, coordination and fine motor. Learning and Language. 2. Midbrain- is the smallest region of the brainstem. It involves voluntary movement; controls eye muscles. Involves Parkinson's disease. Reticular Formation: a network of fibers that runs up through both the hindbrain and the midbrain; it is crucial to waking up and falling asleep. Involved in a Two Main Divisions of NervousSystem coma. Brainstem: Midbrain, Medulla, Pons Central Nervous System (CNS) 1. Brain- interprets and stores information and sends orders to different parts of the body. It is the Reviewer by: Joyce Bristol 3  Cerebral Hemispheres 3. Forebrain- is the largest and most complex region of the brain. Consists of the cerebrum ​ Corpus Callosum is a dense aggregate of (largest part of the brain), controls cognitive, neural fibers connecting the two cerebral sensory and motor function and regulates hemispheres. temperature. Located at the top and front of the ​ Roger C. Sperry's 1981 Nobel Prize-winning brain. theory: Thalamus: receives information from the senses ○​ Left brain: Analytical thinking, logic, and relays it to the cerebral cortex for processing, science, writing. sensory relay station. ○​ Right brain: Art awareness, creativity, holistic thinking. Limbic System: a connection group of forebrain structures that share important functions in emotion Lobes of the Brain: memory, etc. Temporal Lobe.(auditory processing) -​ It is responsible for hearing and language. Hypothalamus: the master regulator of almost all -​ Auditory Cortex - where sound major drives and motives we have, such as hunger, information arrives from the thalamus for thirst, temperature, and sexual behavior; also controls processing. the pituitary gland. -​ Cingulate Gyrus: a belt-like structure in the middle Parietal Lobe. (comprehending the world) of the brain, plays an important role in attention and -​ The parietal lobe plays a key role in cognitive control.​ processing touch, spatial awareness, and ​ other sensory information. Basal Ganglia: collection of structures -​ Somatosensory cortex - involved in the surrounding the thalamus; involved in voluntary processing and perception of sensory motor control. information from the body. Limbic System includes: Frontal Lobe. (cognitive functions). Hippocampus:Seahorse-shaped structure in -​ Youngest brain system the brain's temporal lobes. A region of the brain -​ Attention, planning, abstract thinking, that plays a crucial role in the formation and control of impulses, creativity, and social consolidation of memories. It is essential for the awareness. formation and storage of long-term memories. -​ Continue to develop until the early 20s. -​ In September 1848, a 25-year old railroad Amygdala: A small, almond-shaped structure foreman, Phineas Gage was laying railroad that is involved in the processing of emotions, -​ tiles. He accidentally ignited a powder and it exploded. particularly fear and aggression. -​ Primary motor cortex. Hypothalamus:Helps produce hormones that Occipital Lobe. (visual processing) regulate heart rate, body temperature, hunger, -​ Primarily responsible for processing visual and the sleep-wake cycle. A region of the brain perception. that controls various autonomic functions, such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the Prefrontal cortex is involved in decision making, sleep-wake cycle, as well as the release of impulse control, and other higher cognitive functions. hormones by the pituitary gland. Cerebral cortex is the thin outer layer of the cerebrum, in which much of human thought, planning, Thalamus: is a small, egg-shaped structure perception and consciousness takes place. located in the center of the brain, beneath the cerebral cortex. It is a critical relay station for Cerebral Hemispheres and Communication sensory information, processing and routing information from the senses to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. Reticular Activating System (RAS) ​ Important in controlling consciousness (awakening & sleeping cycle), attention, and movement. 1. Broca's Area Reviewer by: Joyce Bristol 4  ​ The area in the left frontal lobe responsible for PERCEPTUAL GROUPING the ability to produce speech. Gestalt Approach 2. Wernicke's Area ​ The area deep in the left temporal lobe Structuralism responsible for the ability to speak in meaningful sentences and to comprehend ​ Distinguished between sensations vs. the meaning of speech. perceptions. Corpus Callosum - where all communications ​ Number of dots (sensations) create our between one side of the brain and the other travels. perception of a face. ○​ Perceptions occur by adding up sensations. ​ Apparent Movement ○​ Cannot be explained by sensations as there is nothing in the dark spaces between flashing lights. ○​ "The whole is different than the sum of its parts." ○​ Illusion of movement - movement is perceived but nothing is actually moving. ​ Illusory Contours ○​ Appear real but have no physical edge. ○​ Example: "How many triangles can you see?" Why is it so difficult to design a PERCEIVING MACHINE? ​ Reason 1: The Stimulus on the Receptors is Ambiguous ​ The perceptual system determines the object ‘out there’ that created the image. WEEK 5-6 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION ​ Involves solving the inverse projection problem. Sensation- The physical detection of stimuli by ​ Reason 2: Objects can be Hidden or Blurred sensory receptors such as sight, sound, taste, touch, ​ People can easily identify partially and smell. hidden objects. Perception- It is the process of interpreting ​ Use knowledge of the environment to and making sense of sensory information. determine what's likely present. ​ Reason 3: Objects Look Different from 4 Basic Sensations of skin: Different Viewpoints Pressure. The sensation of pressure on the skin is ​ Humans recognize objects from different important for detecting physical contact with objects or angles easily (viewpoint invariance). surfaces. ​ Computers struggle with this task. Pain. The skin can sense pain, which is important for Viewpoint Invariance - ability to recognize objects protecting us from injury. from different viewpoints. Hot. The skin can sense changes in temperature, Perceptual Organization - process of grouping visual allowing us to detect hot sensations. elements together (organization) so that one can more Cold. The skin can sense changes in temperature, readily determine the meaning of the visual as a allowing us to detect cold sensations. whole (perception). Reviewer by: Joyce Bristol 5 PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION GESTALT PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION Continuation ​ Good points connected result in straight or ​ Proximity - Objects close together are smoothly curving lines seen as belonging perceived as a group. together. ​ Objects partially covered by others are seen as continuing behind them. ​ Similarity - Objects grouped by a common Pragnanz feature like color or shape. ​ Similar things appear grouped together. ​ Also applies to auditory stimuli. ​ Continuity - Tendency to follow lines when looking at objects. Similarity ​ Also called the principle of good figure or simplicity. ​ Every stimulus pattern is seen in the simplest way possible (e.g., Olympic symbol). ​ Closure - Perception of completeness even when an object is incomplete. Proximity (Nearness) ​ Things near each other appear grouped together ​ Connectedness - Objects connected by lines, color, or shape are grouped together. Reviewer by: Joyce Bristol 6  2. Semantic Regularities Scene Schema ​ When picturing an object, we visualize it within a familiar setting. Semantic ​ characteristics are associated with functions. carried out in different scenes. Common Fate ​ Objects moving in the same direction appear WEEK 7-8 ATTENTION grouped together. Works even if objects in a group are dissimilar. Attention - refers to how we actively process specific information present in our environment. TYPES OF ATTENTION Common Region ​ Sustained Attention - Enables a person to stay ​ Elements within the same region of space on a task for a long period. appear grouped together. ​ Selective Attention - Enables a person to stay ​ Stronger than proximity. on task even when a distraction is present. ​ Divided Attention - Allows a person to handle two or more tasks at one time. DEFINITION AND FUNCTION OF PERCEPTION Uniform Connectedness PERCEPTION ​ A connected region of the same visual properties (light, color, texture, motion) is perceived as a ​ Our sensory experience of the world around single unit. us. ​ Stronger than proximity. ​ Involves both the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to these INFORMATION FOR HUMAN PERCEPTION stimuli. ​ Serves as an encoding process. Two ways of making sense of stimuli: 1.​ Bottom-up Processing - "Eye to brain" STROOP EFFECT allowing the stimulus to shape perception ​ Your task is to name, as quickly as possible, the without preconceived ideas. color of ink used to print each of the shapes. 2.​ Top-down Processing - Using background ​ Example of Automatic Perception knowledge and expectations to interpret ○​ It is difficult to name the colors in which stimuli. words are printed when the actual words refer to different colors. TAKING REGULARITIES OF THE ENVIRONMENT INTO ACCOUNT Cognitive Neuroscience ​ Regularities in the Environment - ​ Cognitive Neuroscience seeks to use Characteristics that occur frequently. observations from the study of the brain to help unravel the mechanisms of the mind. Two Types of Regularities Localization of Function 1.​ Physical Regularities ​ Localization of function refers to the specific Oblique Effect areas of the brain that control specific skills ​ Most objects in our environment are seen as or behaviors. horizontal or vertical. ​ Rarely do we see slanted objects, making them harder to perceive. Light from Above Assumption ​ We assume light comes from above (e.g., sun, artificial lights). Reviewer by: Joyce Bristol 7 Brain Basics: Know Your Brain PET (Positron Emission Tomography) ​ The brain is the most complex part of the human body. ​ Uses radioactive tracers to detect disease or ​ This 3.5-pound organ is the seat of injury in the brain. intelligence, interpreter of the senses, initiator of body movement, and controller of FMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) behavior. ​ It's made up of billions of tiny cells called ​ Based on differences in oxygen consumption neurons that communicate with each other between active and less active brain areas. using electrical signals. ​ Involved in receiving and processing sensory MEG (Magnetoencephalography) information, thinking, other cognitive processing, and planning and sending motor information. ​ Noninvasive test used by neurologists and neurosurgeons to plan brain surgeries. Basal Ganglia ​ Maps out sensory areas and pinpoints seizure ​ Collections of neurons crucial to motor origins. function. ​ Dysfunction can result in motor deficits like Parkinson’s and Huntington’s Disease. Famous Brain Researchers Marc Dax (1836) ​ Studied hemispheric specialization in the human brain. ​ Treated aphasia patients and found a relationship between speech loss and left hemisphere damage. Paul Broca (1864) ​ Identified Broca's area, a lesion in the left cerebral hemisphere crucial for speech. Carl Wernicke ​ Studied language-deficient patients and traced language ability to the left hemisphere. ​ Identified Wernicke’s area, crucial for language comprehension. Brain Imaging Techniques EEG (Electroencephalogram) ​ Changes in electrical potentials recorded via electrodes attached to the scalp. Reviewer by: Joyce Bristol 8