PSY210 Study Guide PDF

PSY210: Study Guide MIDTERM 1: Section: Mind and History (will be covered in Midterm 1, then again Final) Locke Please compare and contrast the empiricist and nativist schools of thought. o Empiricist: Aristotle and Locke. Nurture- Humans are shaped primarily by experience. Endless...

PSY210: Study Guide MIDTERM 1: Section: Mind and History (will be covered in Midterm 1, then again Final) Locke Please compare and contrast the empiricist and nativist schools of thought. o Empiricist: Aristotle and Locke. Nurture- Humans are shaped primarily by experience. Endless possibilities of learning, You can change. You work for it o Nativist: Plate and Descartes. Nature, knowledge fixed at birth, born great or not. Knowledge innate. Youre born with it. Plato first rationalist. Please describe John Locke’s contributions to the empiricist school. o Took Aristotle’s idea further. Argued our minds begin as a blank slate (tabula rasa). BOTTOM-UP LOGIC. Learn by forming associations between primary sensory inputs. Please describe Ebbinghaus’ early experiments on forgetting. o Studied cognition on himself. Tested ability to remember series of words. Exponential decline in memory Please describe the limits of introspection. o Asked people to reflect on own thoughts and behaviors → Thoughts are not directly observable. Impossible to test. Data cannot be collected. Wundt, James, Freud. IN !! Please describe Pavlovian (classical) conditioning. o Stimulus → Response. When a stimulus (unconditioned response) automatically evokes a response (unconditioned response), a condition that consistently goes before the stim , (conditioned stimulus), will evoke anticipatory response ( Conditioned response). → Bell before meat, leads to salivate at bell Please describe Edward Thorndike’s law of effect (a cat wants to get out of the box!) o Instrumental/Operant conditioning. WILL BE ON MIDTERM. Behaviorist. Rewarded for behavior → Repeat behavior. Not useful behavior → Disappearance of behavior. Cat’s behavior that opened the box became more frequent over time and unhelpful behaviors disappeared. Behaviors with positive effects are repeated. Behaviors with negative are not. Please describe the concept of behaviorism. o How behavior changes in response to stimuli. Radical Behaviorism: BF Skinner, no such thing as a mind. Non-observable things do not exist. Please identify B.F. Skinner’s approach to radical behaviorism and some of his contributions. o No such thing as a mind. Focused on behavior results. ABA (applied behavioral analysis) stimulation to help behavior → did it work or not. Please describe Edward Tolman’s concepts of cognitive maps.  o Argued something happens between stimulus and response. The rat has a cognitive map/layout of the maze seen after adding a blocker and the rat knowing a different path without ever going on it. Novel route. How was Edward Tolman’s idea different from those of traditional behaviorists? o Something between stimulus and response happens. What do cognitive psychologists study? ▪ Examine on directly observable internal mental processes. Study mental events indirectly. Measure Stim / Response → Develop hypothesis → Experiments How does the cognitive psychologists’ approach differ from behaviorists? o Use clues to figure out how crime was committed. Study what happens in BETWEEN stimulus and response. Why did behaviorism decline? Please list two big reasons o Tolman showed internal representations are important to explain behavior (cognitive maps) o Noam Chomsky’s refutes skinner with explaining language. There is no reinforcement when babies are learning language. Correct self evn when not learned/taught not possible if behaviorism is true. o Popper says needs to be testable / falsifiable. Please explain Miller’s “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two.” o Used to explain short term memory capacity. Suggested holds 5-9 chunks/information of numbers. Digit span test. If you find meaning in info in theh stm you can recode to make meaningful chunks 14921984→ 1492, 1984. Please describe Baddeley’s working-memory system o Example of internal mental process investigations o Working memory is a workspace for the mind. Collects sensory input, activates relative LTMs, and transforms info to suit current needs. o Phonological Loop: Rehearsing and repeating in internal voice o Visuospatial Sketchpad: Inner eye, daydream about moving things in room o The CENTRAL EXECUTIVE controls the VSSP and PL. Tells them what to do. Please explain how working memory can be influenced by various manipulations, including concurrent articulation. o Speech production while taking the digit span test (repeating TAH TAH TAH out loud). Speech production and sub-vocalization (inner voice) use the same system therefore makes task much harder. Please describe the scope and goals of cognitive psychology. o William James father of cognitive psychology. Wundt father of psychology. Why did the BBC video host (Human Body, we watched at home after the very first lecture) describe the brain as a termite colony? o Many individual things work together to create one whole thing. Does little on own but all together can create very complex situations. Section: Cognitive Neuroscience (will be covered in Midterm 1, then again in Final) Gyrus→ Visible Strip Sulucus → Crease, fissure if big. Please differentiate between the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain regions. o Hindbrain- Lowest section, Meedulla and Cerebellum. Forebrain- Cerebral cortex, Please describe the functions of the sub-cortical structures. o Thalamus – Relay Center sends to cerebral cortex, Amygdala- Anger and aggression, Hippocampus – Learning and memory !! Under cortex. Please identify cortical and sub-cortical structures in the brain. o Major cortical- Visual cortex, association areas, somatosensory cortex (parietal), Motor Cortex ( just before central sulcus back of frontal lobe), Auditory cortex. Motor and Sensory about 25% of cerebral cortex, the rest are association cortex. → Associate simple ideas and sensations in order to form complex thoughts and behaviors o Sub cortical are located deeper in the brain. Beneath cerebral cortex. Thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, etc. Please explain the role that the corpus callosum plays in the brain, and how lesioning that structure affects behavior. o Confuses contralateral organization. Left side of brain receives input from right side. Right side of brain receives input from left side, controls left side of body. o Stops communication between either side. Please describe the various imaging and recording techniques that can be used to examine brain (neural) activity. o EEG: Attach to scalp to record fluctuations in voltage over time (Action Potential) Electrical activity o ERPs: Event related potentials, Patterns of eeg that are triggered by stimulus. Beginning image → End image, Onset → Offset. Postsynaptic potentials, can not precisely locate. o TMS: Temporary Lesion. External magnetic field to produce non invasive stimulation o Single Unit- Electrode placed OUTSIDE A CELL BODY. Record action potential from individual neurons Neural Imaging: 1. Structural Brain imaging- Still picture (CT Scans xray to get a picture of brain structure) and MRI Scans (Magnetic properties to get high resolution picture of brain structure), DTI water molecules moving to mesure whitie matter tracts of nerves brain wiring / Nerves wiring. 2. Functional Brian Imaging (See within brain whats going on with a certain task) PET requires injection to measure increased blood flow. fMRI measures increased blood flow by magnetic properties. Please differentiate between the motor and somatosensory areas of cortex.  o Somatosensory- Greater precision requires larger area. “Little Person”, lips mores sensitive than thigh because has larger cortical area. According to the lectures, neurons speak two languages (i.e., two components of neural communications). What are these two languages? o Electrical (ions) and Chemical (Neurotransmitters) Please differentiate the action potential and the graded potential. o Action Potential- Resting -70, Threshold -50. All or none. 1. Na rush in 2. K rush out. o Graded Potential- Happens before AP. Depolar or hyperpolar. Change in voltage. Please differentiate depolarization and hyperpolarization. o Depolar- Neuron becomes more positive. Incr likelihood of AP. Excitatory o Hyper- Neuron becomes more negative. Decr likelihood of AP. Inhibitory What happens when an action potential gets to the axon terminal? o NT Released aftrer travelling down. Please describe the chemical events that occur at the synapse. o Synaptic vesicles dump contents into synapse. (Neurotransmitters). NT Bind to Receptors. Please depict how these chemical events lead to between-cell communication. What is the lock-and-key metaphor? o NT finding receptor at synapse. Section: Visual Perception (will be covered in Midterm 1, then again in Final) What does transduction mean? o Neural stimulus from a physical stimulus (5 senses and 1 brain, need a language all share). Photons of light Please describe how light is transduced into neural activity in the retina. o Photon of light absorbed by photoreceptor o The absorption changes the rate of nt release (transduction process) o This change of nt release creates a neural stimulus from a physical stimulus. o THIS OCCURS IN THE RETINA What is sensation? What is perception? What is cognition? How do sensation, perception and cognition differ from each other? o Sensation provides raw data, perception interprets the data, and cognition provides meaning and understanding. o Sensation: Direct sensory input from the 5 senses. o Perception: An active process where the brain interprets. Interaction of internal and external factors. Shapes understanding of the world. Not a passive reception but an active interpretation  o Cognition: Origin of everything. Requires a language for the brain to understand sensory inputs. Includes memory, interpretation, and higher-level processing Please describe the Gestalt principles o The overall organization of visual input influes how individual parts are interpreted. o Pragnanz (Simplicity) --> Percieve complex shapes as the simplest possible set of objects. Prefer two simple shapes over one cmplex shape o Good Continuation: Visual elements that appear to follow a consistent pattern or line are perceived as belonging together. Lines continue well rather than two < > shapes it would be / and \ o Similarity: Objects with similar shapes grounded tofether. Vertical or horizontal groups. Organize efficiently Please describe how the Gestalt principles influence our visual perception. o The whole is more than just a collection of parts but instead how the individual parts are interpreted are important. Please differentiate between the various forms of perceptual constancy. o Lightness constancy: Capacity to perceive equal reflecting surfaces as having the same lightness despite being in different illumination fields AND Perceive object as having the same brightness under different illumination conditions. o Color constancy: Surfaces have same lightness despite illumination environments How does recognition differ from perception? Section: Attention (will be covered Midterm 2, then again in Final) Please explain what we have learned about attention (both strengths and limits) from dichotic listening experiments. o Dichotic: Story in one ear and numbers in the other. Cocktail party problem.  o Filtering; Filter out / don’t remember numbers. When you prioritize the story, you filter out the unneeded information. o Early selection. Minimize overloading of perceptual systems with this method Please differentiate between early and late selection theories of attention. o Early: Operates DURING perception. Stimuli IN FRONT of you. Minimize overloading by splitting it up / attend subsets of information - Broadbent, attention is a peripheral gate. What info can come in and shuts down the rest. Closes gate to unattended information The following are all evidence against the gate - Stroop Paradigm: Ignored features of a stimulus influence naming speeds. Words and Ink naming; compatible match, incompatible do not match, and participants are slow naming the ink with incompatible trials. - Moray: Participants detect own name in the unattended ear during shadowing. - Flankers paradigm E + H: Should be able to only process central letter according to p-gate. Respond only to center letter. Compatible; xxx Incompatible; oxo, longer reaction time - Treisman: Attention is a VOLUME CONTROL (attenuator). Unattended info turned down but not gated/turned off o Late: Operates AFTER perception. Minimize overload of memory, decision, and response systems. No stimuli —> Ex: Have a lot to do so sit on toilet to deconstruct a plan, and prioritize - Kahneman: Attention controls the allocation of a limited pool of “cognitive resources” RESOURCE ALLOCATION - —>> 50/50 attention impossible. One task will always need more resources therefore decreasing amount of resources available to the other. EX: Driving and talking Please explain how the resource availability influences your ability to multi-task. o Explained in previous answer. o 50/50 attention not possible because of limited pool of cognitive resources. Allocate more to one Please compare and contrast change blindness and inattentional blindness. o Inattentional Blindness: Gorilla/basketball task. Unaware of clearly visible stimuli if they are not directing their attention to that visual stimuli. Do not notice small square added on an experiment naming longest line. o Change Blindness: A cue needs to be added to notice a change more quickly. Shown a picture with and without an element in alternating blinking format. Don’t notice change until a while after. Please describe what change blindness and inattentional blindness collectively suggest about attention. o Allocating attention is important because it is a limited source. Please describe how spatial cues can influence attention. o Posner’s Cueing Paradigm! o Reaction time is fastest on trials where the cue tells the correct answer, and slowest when it is the opposite side (Yellow box, peripheral cue) o Peripheral Cue AUTOMATICALLY grabs attention, a central cue will NOT. Where the cue is matters. Please describe orienting of attention both in terms of behavior and biological underpinnings. o Bio Notes: Ignored stimuli are suppressed within 100 ms of onset - PET and EERP used to show posterior wave 1 arises from visual cortex! - Attention influences perception! Single-unit in monkeys shows attention influences size of the neural response. These all show early selection can occur !!! Attention operates at different stages depending on which stage faces info overload for a given task. Use early for some and late for others. Please describe Feature Integration Theory o This is where visual search lays o We can perceive simple features without focused attention, but we need attention to perceive objects defined by multiple features. Attention is used to integrate the features of an object o —> Conjunction search takes longer than simple feature search (Conjunction SERIAL, simple PARALLEL)  o —> Illusory conjunctions can occur if distracted o —> Can detect features WITHOUT reporting their location but NOT so for conjunctions. o “Object file”: Representations of all the features of an object, including info that changes over time (Like location, something being thrown) Please describe the binding problem and attention’s role in solving the binding problem. o Illusory conjunctions! Binding of features into object requires attention especially in “noisy” situations. o Rarely happens because we are usually paying attention to what we are looking at and we have prior knowledge how objects are supposed to look before we bind the features together. (Top-down effect) o What makes this happen? —> Rapid stimulus presentation and directing attention to another task Please explain what patients with unilateral neglect tell us about attention. o Patients do not pay attention to the contralateral (opposite) side of space. Only aware of good side, bad side drops out of consciousness o Proves attention neglect is NOT sensory dependent. o Parietal lobe issue o Patient RM Bilateral parietal damage —> Lack of focused attention BUT can still detect simple features, but can’t localize, can perform simple feature tasks but not conjunction searches, illusory conjunctions occur. Balint’s Syndrome (((Disorder fits feature integration theory))) Section: Memory (will be covered in Midterm 2, then again in Final) Please describe Atkinson and Shiffrin’s modal memory model. o More time in STM yields better transfer to LTM. Goes from each section in order, can not jump or skip steps to get to long-term. Please describe the components and organization of Baddeley and Hitch’s working memory system, including the central executive. o STM is NOT only storage but is more interchangeable. Used to store AND manipulate info. Uses particular structure of central executive and the two assistant systems. o Working memory is a workspace for the mind. Collects sensory input, activates relevant LTMs, and transforms info to suit CURRENT needs. o —-> Central Executive: Manipulates info and controls TRANSFER of info among the other systems o —> Phonological/articulatory loop: Stores verbal info in acoustic format. Capacity of about 2 seconds. Ex; acoustic similarity harder / impairs STM rather than different sounding letters. BPT vs BFM o —> VSSP; Mind’s eye. Please explain what the homunculus problem refers to. (Returning from Mind: History) Please explain how working memory can be influenced by various manipulations, including concurrent articulation. o Concurrent articulation impairs STM PL by repeating something like abc, abc (Returning from Mind: History) Please come up with real-life situations that working memory is required. (Returning from Mind: History) Please describe the procedures for the commonly used tests of working-memory capacity. o Estimating storage capacity in working memory task 1: Shown image of multiple colored squares, delay of almost a second to avoid iconic memory, then asked if they saw a difference. About 100% correct noticing until after 4 objects. Shows can hold 3-4 OBJECTS. Multiple feature just as easy as single feature because we don’t remember features separately o About 2 seconds worth of info (articulatory loop) o Digit span tasks  o Miller Magical number 7 +/- 2 stimuli retained o Takes about 18seconds for information to decay (instead proactive interference later shown) Please distinguish explicit memory from implicit memory o Explicit Memory: Episodic (Event) / Semantic (when is your birthday, fact). Can explain and easily verbalize why we know. Serial recall, free recall, cued recall. REPRODUCE AND EXPLAIN o Implicit Memory: Can’t explain, but know how to do. Priming and procedural knowledge (bike, mirror drawing). Please provide examples of memory tests for explicit memory and implicit memory respectively. o Implicit: o ——> Speeded-Response tasks- Lexical decision. Doctor first in list (primes) Nurse second, say fastest (probe). Nurse recognized faster because of semantic association. o ——> Subliminal perception; 1ms exposure to one image, then asked which seen before between two (low accuracy for which seen, high accuracy for which you like better- says the one previously shown) o ——> Mirror drawing task; participants draw defined shape but can only see through mirror, usually poor performance but enhances. HM (who has anterograde amnesia from removing medial temporal lobes which contained hippocampus) can do it!! Proves his implicit is in tact and he can still learn new skills o Explicit: o ——> Please summarize the DRM procedure and results. o In the DRM procedure, participants are shown a list of words that are all related to a specific concept, such as "bed," "pillow," and "blanket," which are associated with the word "sleep." The critical word (e.g., "sleep") is not presented in the list. Afterward, participants are asked to recall as many words as they can. Despite the critical word never being shown, many participants falsely recall it, demonstrating how memory can be distorted and how related information can lead to the creation of false memories. Please explain why the DRM procedure and results are very important for us (i.e., significance in science). o The DRM results show how the brain's semantic networks work. When related words are presented together, the brain may activate associated concepts, leading to the false recall of words related to the list but not actually presented. This insight helps psychologists understand the mechanisms of memory retrieval o Please describe how previous knowledge can help memory, but also may lead to memory errors. o Proactive facilitation; previous knowledge aids in learning new related information (Help) o Interference Please describe how various manipulations will influence the shape of the serial-position curve and why. o Items near beginning and end of a list are more distinct. o Primacy, recency, capacity limits, mid item effect Please describe how the modal memory model has been updated. What is the evidence that speaks against the modal memory model? The modal model of memory has been largely abandoned by researchers due to several problems: Capacity and decay explanations: Limits in short-term memory (STM) can be explained by interference and distinctiveness, rather than decay Rehearsal ineffectiveness: Maintaining information in STM through rehearsal does not improve long-term memory (LTM) performance. STM-LTM dissociation: Some patients with brain damage show impaired STM but intact LTM, raising questions about how information enters LTM without STM Complex task performance: Patients with impaired STM can still perform well on complex tasks like math and logic problems, challenging the model's assumptions Decay reconsidered: Peterson & Peterson's (1959) data on decay may actually be due to proactive interference rather than decay itself. These issues have led researchers to reconsider the modal model's validity in explaining memory processes.  o Please explain why the serial position curve supports the notion that working memory and long- term memory are separate storage systems. o Primacy reflects LTM and recency reflects STM. Please compare and contrast maintenance and elaborative rehearsal, including their effects on subsequent memory. Please describe the impact that level of processing has on memory. Please describe the role that organization plays in memory and mnemonics. Please describe the neural correlates of learning and memory, including working memory. Please describe how you might store and retrieve long-term memories from a spreading activation perspective. o Please differentiate retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. o Retrograde Amnesia: Recall of information before incident difficult. Clive Wearing, lived moment to moment. o Anterograde Amnesia; Making new memories after incident difficult. H.M. —> Medial temporal lobes (hippocampus) or thalamus areas diencephalon area NOTE: VSSP and visual object memory are SEPARATE. Memory for object and space seperate Please compare and contrast the effects that time (decay) and interference have on forgetting. o Decay vs Interference. Rapid Decay in STM (P + P found retention interval and prevented rehearsal), could be proactive interference instead BECAUSE there was no decay on the first trial, so the next ones were instead interfered by previous trials. o Proactive Interference: Forget info due to info from events or learning that occurred PRIOR o Retroactive Interference: Newly-learned info interferes with and impedes recall of previously learned info. New here, old gone. Please explain what, if anything, can be done to improve memory and/or reduce forgetting. o Elaborative processing. Explain in own words to understand. Encodes better. o Visualization. Create story in head to memorize o If encoding method and retrieval method match, better recall o Semantic encoding better than visual or phonemic. Ex: Judge pleasantness of word o Space learning out. Distributed over time rather than massed. Cramming ineffective o Practice makes better. “SAVINGS” More times previously learned list the faster he could re-learn it. Exponential forgetting; Rapid initial forgetting but progressively less forgetting the more time you spend with list. 8 min to learn down to 2 min to learn, 25% time save Section: Interaction between Attention and Memory (will be covered in Midterm 2, then again in Final) Please recall the findings in the note-taking studies. Please describe the main finding by Ravizza et al. (2017). o The relationship between internet use and final exam performance are relevant even whe students are motivated, interested and intelligent. Doesn’t matter, they can not get away from using the internet during class which negatively impacts grade. What made Ravizza et al.’s study so new (in science term, “novel”) and different from other studies that examine the effects of internet usage in the classroom? o Didn’t account for motivation interest or intelligence Please describe the main findings by Moreno and Mayer (2002). How does the finding by Schmidt et al. (2002) apply to Ravizza et al. (2017)? How does the finding by Schmidt et al. (2002) apply to Moreno and Mayer (2002)? Section: Visual Knowledge (will be covered in Midterm 3, then again in Final) In what ways are mental imagery and pictures similar? How are they different? What are demand characteristics? o Participants guess what the researchers are looking for. Please evaluate the role that demand characteristics might have in experiments of visual imagery. Please name the neural correlates of visual imagery. Please illustrate how damage to those areas (neural correlates of visual imaging) influences imaging/imagery. Info can be stored in analog and propositional equally accurately. o Analog- Physical representation, 5 as ||||| Quantitative. Can count the tallies to 18. o Propositional- Arbitary relationship. Categorical. Set of symbols and relations among the symbols. V representation / SYMBOL OF 5. Rep Domino as “Luck” Analog used for early stages of processing like in the visual cortex but don’t understand the later stages as it could while traveling to the front of the brain gradually turn propositional. V1 has topographic map of things in vision field. V1 has small details and small receptive field and fine coded but when get further it is no longer topographic but rather like a chunk or landmark propositional large receptive field. When we access remembered visual format it is in mental images which are in an ARRAY FORMAT (type of analog IMAGES ARE PROCESSED LIKE PICTURES BUT THE REPRESENTATIONS MAY BE ANALOG PROPOSITIONAL OR COMBO OF BOTH Section: Conceptual Knowledge (will be covered in Midterm 3, then again in Final) Please explain prototype learning, instance theory, and a synthesis approach. o Prototype; Learning formed by averaging previously perceived objects. (How stereotypes are generated) o Instance theory: People retain info from ALL of individual examples. (Rather than averaging). To determine whether an item fits somewhere we determine how well it MATCHES THE STORED INSTANCES. o Synthesis: We use a combo of feature-based rules and prototypes / instances. A bat looks more like a bird than an ostrich but we know that bats are mammals and we have a rule that mammals are never birds. Please explain a hierarchical network model of concepts. o Semantic network of links. Similar to a food chain type situation. A robin is a bird is closer linked than a robin is an animal because animal is further up the chain. o Not supported. What are conceptual networks? o Used to explain the storage of explicit / declarative info. What are production systems? o A production is if then statements and a production system is a set of these related productions. Why did researchers propose production systems? (i.e., What are production systems for? o To explain procedural knowledge. (Returning from Mind: History) Why did the BBC video host (Human Body, we watched at home after the very first lecture) describe the brain as a terminate colony? Please differentiate a computer metaphor and a brain metaphor (e.g., neutral networks).  o Brain network explains termite colonies that processing is by a large number of stupid processing units. Brain everything at same time, computer everything serial. Computer units are preprogrammed and a large unit rather than many small units working together. o Both based on connections between units. o TRAINING: Brains learn with trial and error, reducing the error weights each time through experience. Computers just train until correct output. Please explain how neutral networks can be intelligent without having an intelligent supervisor. o The brain is like a modern computer. Organized in a way that allows them to follow a complex set of rules that are outline in the computers program o Brain engages in rule governed behavior without an explicit representation of the rules. Can appear to be following a set of rules without having any explicit representation of the rules o The past tense example: Usually, the past tense version of a word contains -ed at the end, but there are several exceptions to this (irregular verbs). The -ed is an explicit rule plus there is a list of exceptions o Hidden layer between input and output layers is the EXPERIENCE layer. Experience builds intelligence. Section: Language (will be covered in Midterm 3, then again in Final) Please identify six key properties of language. o Communicative o Uses arbitrary symbols (words). Words stand for concepts. Arbitrary because we created o Regularly structured. Order of words in a sentence matters to be meaningful or make sense o Structured at multiple LEVELS. Sentences, phrases, words o Generative. Not all pre learned. Capable of production and reproduction—> Can make a sentence nobody has made before but people will understand. o Dynamic. Evolving. Changes over periods of times or new words and changed meanings common. Please identify elements of languages such as phonemes, morphemes, words, syntax, semantics, and grammar. o Grammar: ENTIRE set of rules. Ties together phonology syntax and semantics o Semantics: MEANINGS of words. Phrases, sentences, and MORPHEMES (Car—> Concept of car) o Syntax: What order the words are in. Ex; in English an adjective precedes a noun but in other languages opposite is true. The Arrangement of structures within and between sentences. o Words: No formal meaning. Combo of one or more morphemes that represents a single meaning. (Drink, drank, drunk, drinker, drinking). o Phonemes: Smallest unit of speech that can distinguish one sound from another. A sound in a word- taken out would change. Sound out. Ch, ck, sh, are 1 because together make one sound. ▪ Diphthongs: Single sound from two vowels- Oo, ou, oi o Morphemes: Smallest unit of speech that DENOTES meaning. Content; the root of word like violin. Functions; Add detail and fit grammar, violinist. ▪ Lexicon- Set of morphemes in a language or individuals mind ~80k  Please identify the neural correlates of speech perception and production. o Left hemisphere of brain. Frontal area opercular language (Broca), production. Posterior Wernickes area, speech perception. Please describe the effects of damage to the neural correlates of speech perception and production. Please differentiate animal and human language abilities. o Humans have language animals have simple communication o Human language is dynamic and changing Please list and explain a set of evidence for the nativist argument. o Language Acquisition Device: Language is unlearnable because it is too complicated so they have some area of the brain where there is innate knowledge of language. Hypothetical ‘organ’ of brain. o Poverty of stimulus: What we speak is not perfect and not a good model for learning. o Lack of negative evidence: GOLDS THEORY. Can’t learn without negative evidence —> No, you should say ___. Your previous saying was not right. Please list and explain a set of evidence for the empiricist argument (against the nativist argument). o Challenges lack of negative evidence because argues parents give implicit feedback to kids with repetition and elaboration and that is how they learn. o Poverty of the stimulus. Speech directed at kids is motherese with simple, slow, repetition, stimulating talking. Adult speech to children NOT impoverished it is ENRICHED. How do Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia differ? o Broca’s Aphasia: Anterior (Producing, output). Primary problem with syntax. They can make sense of what saying but have a hard time producing as it gets all jumbled up. o Wernickes Aphasia: Posterior (Understanding, input). Primary problem with semantics (word meanings). Don’t understand easily but talk nonsense rapidly. Section: Thinking: Decision-making, Problem Solving, Language and Thought (will be covered in Final) What does the concept of the rational decision maker suggest? o Make the best decision always by calculating expected value. Assumes always make the right decision. “Best decision” qualities. o Expected value calculation of probability of outcome and value of outcome Bounded Rationality: o Human rationality bounded by limitations of the human organism such as not knowing all or imperfect memory. o HEURISTICS: example of error! Algorithm always right.. Representativeness Heuristic: o GAMBLERS FALLACY: If something happens more than normal in a given time it will happen less frequently in the future and vice versa. “I have lost 4 in a row I have to win the next one” o Choose what you think most probable / representative of the prompt given. Bob is good at math and not creative --> More likely to be a banker and play jazz than play jazz as hobby Availability Heuristics: o Availability in memory to make a guess. o What is a more common cause of death? Tornadoes or Lighting? People say tornadoes but lightning is the correct answer because tornado deaths more commonly shown in media  Please explain how “factors like previous knowledge” influence our thinking and our judgments, using an example of anchoring.. Please illustrate the typical steps in problem solving. rOrganize information --> Resource allocation --> Monitor progress --> Evaluate success Please differentiate ill-defined and well-defined problems. o Well defined: Some representations lead more obviously to a solution than others. Think of the problem one way is way easier than another way o Ill-defined: People form an overly narrow representation of the problem. REQUIRED to think outside of the box like with the candle and box of matches problem --> Box of the matches is a tool too. INSIGHT may be necessary to solve the problem which is a new understanding or representation of the problem. Please explain what functional fixedness is with an example. o Fixated on normal use of an object. Candle and box of matches problem!! (Dunker’s candle problem) Please describe the hypothesized components of intelligence. o Originally the capacity to learn from experience and ability to adapt to surroundings. o More was added- Metacognition: understand and control own cognitive processes. AND Role of cultural context that plays in IQ Tests o Find ability correlated and use this to measure Please differentiate reliability and validity, in the context of measures of intelligence. o Validity: Are you testing what you are intending to test? Do test scores correlate wiwth later academic performance o Please list two problems with IQ measures. o Assumes unitary when in reality there are different types o Cultural background affects how questions are answered What is heritability? o Passed down genetically. Please explain why twin studies underestimate worldwide environmental variance but overestimate worldwide heritability. --> Not everyone has the same enviroment. Twin studies conducted in homogeneous cities where everything is the same PAST TESTS WRONG ANSWERS: Midterm 1: 1. Color Constancy is the ability to see an object as being the same color irrespective of variations in.... a. The degree of lighting source and different wavelengths of light 2. Our sensory receptors receive energy from the world. Where do these come from? a. BOTH that it may be created directly from objects we perceive AND created by other sources and distorted by objects we perceive 3. What does it mean to say that “perception is constructive” a. We construct mental representations of the world by apply algorithms and heuristics to our sensory input 4. The cerebral cortex... a. Is one continuous 6-layered sheet for each hemisphere 5. A postsynaptic potential is generated when... a. A NT binds with a receptor 6. Which of the following is not true of the diagram below about NT a. E will fire more following excitation of A THAN excitation of B 7. A NT causes K+ to open and Potassium starts to flow from in to OUT. What kind of NT is this a. Inhibitory 8. Which of the following was NOT an important basis for development of cognition? a. 1905 Thorndike’s instrumental conditioning  9. Who agrees with this statement? “I do not have to conduct experiments to know the true nature of the world” a. Plato Midterm 2: 1. Which of the following is direct evidence that information is stored in acoustic form in the articulatory loop? a. STM for a list of words is WORSE if the items sound SIMILAR to each other 2. What did Sterling conclude from his “Partial Report” tasks? a. Sensory memory has virtually infinite capacity 3. A participant is given a list of 20 words to memorize. 30 minutes later they are asked to write down the words in order. This is an example of a... a. Serial recall task 4. In the STROOP TASK...When participants are instructed to say the ink color they are slower if the ink color and word are different. 5. According to Treisman’s Feature Integration Theory... SIMPLE FEATURES.. a. Cannot be conjoiined without attention 6. In dichotic listening experiments the ear with the words will remember a. VERY FEW of the words Midterm 3: 1. Which of the following are analog representations of the quantities three and four? a. ALL OF --> Saying “ka ka ka” for 3 and “ka ka ka ka” for 4 --> Holding up three fingers for three and four fingers for four --> A computer that beeps three times for three and four times for four. 2. A propositional representation... a. ALL OF --> Can represent relative information --> Represent absolute information ---> Represent pictures and sounds with high precision 3. The classical feautre-based view of categorization CAN NOT easily explain why... a. A robin seems like a better example of a bird than a penguin does 4. The concept “bachelor” could be represented in a person’s minds as an “unmarried, adult, male human”. This is an example of... a. The classical feature-based view of concepts and categories 5. Each unit in a neural network is SLOWER than the central processing unit (CPU) in a typical desktop computer. 6. Imagine a language in which plastic shapes are sued to denote morphemes and the color reps past present or future. This use of color examplifies which of the following properties? a. Language is regularly structured 7. Which of the following sentences would be very difficult for a patient with Brocas aphasia to understand? a. “The evil person murdered by the child was buried alive.”