Cognition Study Guide PDF

Attention Main goals of Attention: Pay attention to one thing while ignoring other Feature integration theory states that we need this to bind feaftures of an object. = Attention Selective attention and Divided attention 😀Selective attention: Focusing on a specific stimulus or task while ignoring...

Attention Main goals of Attention: Pay attention to one thing while ignoring other Feature integration theory states that we need this to bind feaftures of an object. = Attention Selective attention and Divided attention 😀Selective attention: Focusing on a specific stimulus or task while ignoring others. Example: Studying for a test while ignoring the television playing in the background. This involves focusing on the textbook material while actively blocking out the distractions from the TV show. 😀Divided attention: Attending to multiple stimuli or tasks at the same time. Example: Driving a car while listening to music on the radio. This requires attending to the road, traffic, etc., while simultaneously listening to and processing the music. This type of attention that occurs in where’s waldo in which red and white stripes pop out of all locations = Feature-based attention Dichotic Listening: Dichotic listening is a test used to study selective attention. In this experiment, participants are presented with two different audio messages, one to each ear, simultaneously. They are then asked to focus on and repeat one message (the attended message) while ignoring the other (the unattended message). Filtering- early, intermediate, late Early Filtering: This theory proposes that we filter out irrelevant information very early in the processing stream. Meaning, we don't even process the meaning of unattended information. Think of it as a gatekeeper that blocks out a lot of information from our awareness. Intermediate Filtering: This theory suggests that we do process some of the unattended information for meaning, but we still filter out a lot of it. Think of it like a dimmer switch - some unattended information is dimmed, but not entirely blocked out. Late Filtering: This theory proposes that we process most of the information for meaning, whether it's attended or not. But, the "filtering" part occurs at a later stage, when we decide which information to become aware of or remember. Think of it as a decision-making process Colin Cherry and Broadbent’s filter model Colin Cherry and Donald Broadbent proposed an early filtering model of attention. They believed that we filter out irrelevant information very early on in the processing stream, before we even process its meaning. They described this as a bottleneck where only one message can pass through at a time. Their model was based on the results of the dichotic listening experiment. They found that people could easily shadow (repeat) the message in one ear while ignoring another, even when the messages were very similar. This suggested that early filtering was occurring, blocking out the unattended message from reaching higher levels of processing. Cocktail party, Dear Aunt Jane experiment Cocktail Party Effect: This refers to the ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy environment, even when other conversations are happening around you. This is challenging because you must filter out all the other sounds and focus on the one voice you want to hear. However, if someone says your name in another conversation within earshot, you're likely to notice it, even though you weren't actively listening to that conversation. "Dear Aunt Jane" Experiment: This experiment, conducted by Treisman, is similar to the cocktail party effect. Participants listened to two different stories presented simultaneously, one to each ear. Each story was presented in the form of sentences, and the sentences were switched between the two ears. Participants were instructed to shadow the message in one ear. The experimenters found that participants would sometimes switch their attention to the other ear if they heard a sentence that was grammatically incomplete or made sense to continue the story in the ear that was being shadowed. This suggests some level of semantic processing of the unattended message. Treisman’s Attenuation Theory Treisman’s Attenuation Theory suggests that instead of completely blocking out unattended information, we simply weaken or attenuate it. Think of it like a volume dial: we turn down the volume on the unattended information, but it's still there in the background. This means that some of the unattended information still gets processed, but at a lower level. This could explain why we might notice things like our name, even if we're focused on another conversation. Here's a simplified breakdown: Early Filtering: A complete blockage of unattended information. Attenuation Theory: Unattended information is weakened, but not completely blocked. This is a more flexible model than early filtering, allowing for some processing of unattended information. McKay’s late filter experiment McKay's late filter experiment supports the theory that filtering happens later in the processing stream, after meaning has been processed. In this experiment, participants listened to sentences presented to one ear (the attended message), while a different message was presented to the other ear (unattended message). The unattended message contained ambiguous words. Here's a simplified example: Attended ear: "They threw stones at the bank." Unattended ear: "river", or "money" The experiment found that when participants were asked to recall the sentence from the attended ear, their recall was influenced by the word heard in the unattended ear. So, if “river” was presented in the unattended ear, they were more likely to recall a sentence about a riverbank. This suggests that even though participants were told to focus on the attended message, they still processed the meaning of the unattended words. This gives evidence for the late filter model—that filtering doesn't happen until after information has been processed for meaning. Load Theory of Attention The Load Theory of Attention proposes that our ability to ignore distractions depends on the cognitive load of the primary task. High load tasks: Tasks that require a lot of mental effort, like solving complex math problems, make it harder to ignore distractions. Low load tasks: Tasks that require less mental effort, like reading a simple text, make it easier to ignore distractions. The theory suggests that when cognitive resources are fully engaged by a demanding task, there are fewer resources left to attend to other things. Remembering singing along to all your favorite songs on your commute to class today is an example of this kind if memory = EPISODIC Stroop Task The Stroop Task is a classic test of attention that illustrates the interference that can occur when processing conflicting information. Here's how it works: You are presented with a list of color words (e.g., "red", "blue", "green"). Each word is printed in a different color of ink (e.g., the word "red" might be printed in blue ink). Your task is to name the color of the ink, ignoring the word itself. This task is difficult because the word you read (e.g., "red") conflicts with the color of the ink (e.g., blue). It takes longer to name the ink color when the word is a different color. Overt vs covert attention (spatial attention) Overt attention: Involves shifting our gaze or physically moving our head to focus on a target. It is observable, meaning someone else can see where we are looking. MAKING EYE MOVEMENTS Covert attention: Involves directing our focus withou;t moving our eyes or head. It is internal and not directly visible to others. We can pay attention to something without looking at it. For example: You are walking down a street and see a red car. Overt attention: You would turn your head and look directly at the car. You are at a party and hear someone mention your name in a conversation across the room. Covert attention: You may shift your attention towards the conversation without actually looking at it. No look pass- overt or covert? Covert attention. You are shifting your attention to the intended receiver of the pass, even though your eyes are focused on a different area of the field. You are using your mental focus to anticipate the receiver's movement, even without physically looking at them Saccades, fixations- overt or covert? Overt Saccades: These are rapid eye movements that shift our gaze from one point to another. Saccades are overt because they involve a physical movement of the eyes. Fixations: These are pauses in eye movement when our gaze is held steady on a specific point. They are COVERT because the eyes are still physically fixed on the object entries Posner’s cueing paradigm- overt or covert? Covert In this paradigm, participants are presented with a cue indicating where a target will likely appear. This cue can be valid, meaning the target appears in the cued location, or invalid, meaning the target appears in a different location. Participants are asked to respond as quickly as possible to the target. This experiment shows that participants respond faster when the target appears in the cued location, even when they are instructed not to move their eyes. This suggests that they are able to shift their attention to the cued location without making eye movements. We need selective attention is that we have limited ________ resources= Processing Salience Salience refers to how much something stands out or attracts attention—think of it as a "pop-out" effect. It's a measure of how noticeable or important something is compared to its surroundings. Here's a way to think about it: Imagine you're walking down a busy street. High Salience: A bright red car driving down the street would have high salience because it stands out from the other cars and draws your attention. Low Salience: A gray car blending in with the other cars would have low salience, because it isn't as noticeable. Salience can be influenced by many factors, like: Visual features: Bright colors, high contrast, movement, etc. Semantic importance: Things that are personally relevant or meaningful to you. Emotional significance: Things that evoke strong emotions, like a loud noise or a scary image. Spatial-, Object-, Feature- based attention Spatial attention: Focusing on a particular location in space, even if there's no object there. Think of it like a spotlight that you can move around. Object-based attention: Directing our attention to a specific object, even if it's surrounded by other objects. We attend to the object as a whole. Feature-based attention: Attending to a specific feature of an object, like its color, shape, or movement. Egly’s object-based attention experiment Egly's object-based attention experiment demonstrated that our attention is often biased towards whole objects, rather than just locations in space.  In this experiment, participants were shown two objects (e.g., a rectangle and a circle) that were close together on a screen. They were then given a cue that indicated the location of a potential target, which would appear briefly on the screen. The results showed that participants were faster to detect a target that appeared at a location that was on the same object as the cued location, even if another location on a different object was closer to the target. This showed that their attention was biased by the object itself, not just the spatial proximity. Hemispatial neglect Hemispatial neglect (also known as spatial neglect) is a neurological condition where a person has difficulty attending to and responding to stimuli on one side of their body or environment. It usually affects the left side because the right hemisphere of the brain controls the left side of the body. It’s often associated with damage to the right parietal lobe after a stroke or brain injury. People with hemispatial neglect may: Ignore the left side of their body, failing to groom or dress half of their body. Fail to notice objects or people on their left side, bumping into them or not acknowledging their presence. Have trouble reading or writing, only understanding the left half of what they read or writing only on the right half of the page. **Feature-binding and Feature Integration Theory** The Feature Integration Theory (FIT), proposed by Anne Treisman, explains how we perceive complex objects and scenes. It states that we initially process features of objects separately (like color, shape, and motion) and then bind them together to form a unified perception. Here's how it works: Preattentive Stage: We automatically and unconsciously perceive basic features of an object in parallel. We don't pay attention to the object as a whole yet.  Focused Attention Stage: We then use selective attention to bind together those separate features into a coherent object. This stage requires focused attention and is slower than the preattentive stage. The key takeaway is that we don't perceive objects as complete units right away; we construct them piece by piece. This is especially important for recognizing objects in cluttered environments or under conditions where we need to filter out distractions. Short-term and Working Memory Modal model of memory- Atkinson and Shiffrin Sensory memory- iconic and echoic The modal model of memory is a classic model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin that describes how information flows through different memory systems. It suggests that there are three main stages of memory: Sensory Memory: A very brief storage system that holds sensory information for a fraction of a second. This is where we first process information from our senses. Sensory memory can be further divided into: Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory, which holds information from our eyes. Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory, which holds information from our ears. Short-Term Memory (STM): A limited-capacity storage system that holds information for a short period of time (usually around 20 seconds). This is where we actively manipulate and process information. Long-Term Memory (LTM): A relatively permanent storage system that holds information for an extended period of time. This is where we store our knowledge, skills, and experiences. (Make a table/chart for capacity and duration of sensory, short- and long-term memory!!!) Capacity and duration of sensory memory Sensory memory has a very large capacity but a very short duration.  Capacity: Sensory memory can hold a vast amount of information, almost everything that our senses can perceive at a given moment. Duration: However, this information only lasts for a fraction of a second (less than a second). Think of it like a constantly changing snapshot of the world around you. This makes sense because sensory memory acts as a buffer, allowing us to process and decide what information is important enough to transfer to short-term memory. Fragility of sensory memory Sensory memory is extremely fragile and easily disrupted. New sensory information quickly replaces the old, making it very difficult to hold onto sensory information for very long. For example, if you see a flash of light, you can still remember the image for a brief moment even after it disappears. However, if you see another flash of light immediately after the first one, the first image will be erased from sensory memory and replaced by the new one Short-term memory- duration and decay Short-term memory (STM) has a limited duration, typically around 20 seconds. It decays over time if not rehearsed or actively used. The information in STM is vulnerable to interference from new information. How can we prevent decay? Rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it active in STM. Think of silently reciting a phone number to keep it in your memory until you can write it down. Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units to increase the amount of information that can be held in STM. Think of remembering a long string of digits by grouping them into chunks like phone numbers or dates. Capacity of short-term memory The capacity of short-term memory is limited. A common estimate is that we can hold around 7 items (plus or minus 2) in short-term memory at any given time. These items can be digits, words, or any kind of information. MAGIC NUMBER 7 Information limits in short-term memory The capacity of short-term memory is limited, as we discussed earlier. Here are some factors that limit the amount of information we can hold in short-term memory: Limited Capacity: The "magic number 7" (plus or minus 2) - we can only hold a small number of items at once. Interference: New information can easily disrupt existing information in STM. Think of it like trying to write on a piece of paper that's already full - you have to erase some of the old information to fit in the new. Decay: Information fades over time if it isn’t actively rehearsed or used. Baddeley and Hitch model of working memory Baddeley and Hitch proposed a model of working memory that is more complex than the simple short-term memory system described in the modal model. They suggest that working memory is not just a storage system but an active processing system that helps us manipulate information to perform tasks. According to Baddleys and Hitch's model, this part of working memory controls how we are able to manipulate memory= Central executive Phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, central executive Their model proposes three main components: The Phonological Loop: This component handles auditory and verbal information and is responsible for rehearsing verbal information. The Visuo-spatial Sketchpad: This component deals with visual and spatial information. It’s your “inner eye.” Think of it as your ability to mentally rotate an object or picture to create a visual representation of it in your mind.  The Central Executive: This component manages and coordinates the activities of the other two components. It acts as the “CEO” of working memory, deciding what information to attend to and how to process it. Phonological similarity effect, word length effect, articulatory suppression (What do these show?) Phonological Similarity Effect: We have more difficulty remembering lists of words that sound similar (like cat, cap, can) than lists of words that sound different (like cat, house, tree). It shows that the phonological loop relies on the sound of words, not just their meaning. Word Length Effect: We can remember shorter words more easily than longer words. Since the phonological loop depends on rehearsal, a longer word takes more time to rehearse, making it more susceptible to forgetting. Articulatory Suppression: If we are asked to repeat a word or sound (like “the” or “la”) continuously while trying to learn a list of words, it disrupts our ability to remember the list. This is because it interferes with the rehearsal process in the phonological loop. All of these effects demonstrate the importance of the phonological loop in working memory, particularly for processing and retaining verbal information. Mental Rotation: Mental rotation is the ability to visualize an object in your mind and rotate it as if you were actually manipulating it physically. It's a key function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad in working memory. Role of Central Executive The Central Executive is the control center of working memory. It's like the manager or CEO, directing the other components (phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad). It's responsible for: **Attention: ** It focuses our attention on relevant information and ignores distractions. **Planning: ** It helps us plan and organize tasks, deciding what steps to take and in what order. **Decision-making: ** It helps us make choices and solve problems, considering different options and selecting the best course of action. Vogel’s distractor experiment- what is the take home message? Vogel's distractor experiment shows that our ability to ignore distracting information is limited, especially when we are already focused on a demanding task. The experiment involved showing participants two displays of objects, with one display containing a distractor item that was similar to the target item. The participants had to indicate whether the target was present in the second display. The results showed that: High Load: When the task was more demanding (high working memory load), participants were more likely to be distracted by the similar item. Low Load: When the task was less demanding (low working memory load), participants were less likely to be distracted. The takeaway message is that we are more prone to distractions when we are already taxed mentally. It highlights the relationship between working memory capacity and our ability to ignore irrelevant information. Long-Term Memory Interactions with short-term memory Long-term memory and short-term memory work together in a complex interplay. It's not a simple one-way transfer from short-term to long-term; they influence each other in several ways: Encoding: Short-term memory acts as a gateway to long-term memory; we attend to information in short-term memory, process it, and then potentially transfer it to long-term storage. Retrieval: When we need to access information from long-term memory, we bring it back into short-term memory for use. Think of retrieving a file from a hard drive. Interference: Information in short-term memory can interfere with our retrieval of information from long-term memory. Think of trying to recall an old password when you have a new password in mind. Priming: Exposure to information in short-term memory can make it easier to access related information in long-term memory. For example, seeing the word "apple" might make you more likely to think of the word "fruit" later. Serial Position Curve- Primacy and recency effects and what causes them The serial position curve is a graph showing that we tend to remember the first and last items in a list better than the items in the middle. This effect is called the primacy and recency effect. Primacy Effect: We remember the first items in a list better because we have more time to rehearse them and transfer them to long-term memory. Recency Effect: We remember the last items in a list better because they are still fresh in our short-term memory. Wicken’s semantic interference in WM Wicken's semantic interference effect refers to the phenomenon where recalling information from working memory is more difficult when the information is semantically related to other items in the memory set. Imagine you are trying to recall these words: Cat Dog House The fact that “cat” and “dog” are semantically related – both are animals – can interfere with your recall of each individual word. Recall vs recognition, which is easier? Why? Recognition is generally easier than recall. Recall: Requires you to retrieve information from your long-term memory without any cues. Think of a fill-in-the-blank test.  Recognition: Requires you to identify information from a set of options; you are given cues. Think of a multiple-choice test. Recognition is easier because the provided options act as retrieval cues, helping you access the information stored in your long-term memory more easily. H.M. and the role of the hippocampus in LTM, Anterograde amnesia H.M. (Henry Molaison) was a famous case study in neuroscience. He underwent surgery to remove his hippocampus to treat severe epilepsy. The surgery was successful in reducing his seizures, but it had a devastating side effect: H.M. lost the ability to form new memories. Anterograde amnesia: This means he could remember events from before the surgery, but he could not create new memories after the surgery. This showed that the hippocampus is crucial for forming new long-term memories. Role of the hippocampus: The hippocampus plays a critical role in the consolidation of memories, which is the process of transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory. It seems to be involved in spatial memory, and how we remember the context of events. Double Dissociations in memory- what do they mean? Double Dissociation: When two groups of patients with different brain lesions show opposite patterns of impairment, it suggests that the two functions are supported by distinct brain regions. Example: Imagine a patient with damage to the hippocampus (like H.M.), who has impaired long-term memory but intact short-term memory, and another patient with damage to a different brain area (like the prefrontal cortex), who has impaired short-term memory but intact long-term memory. This suggests that the hippocampus is necessary for long-term memory, while the prefrontal cortex is necessary for short-term memory. Episodic vs Semantic memory Episodic Memory: Refers to personal memories of specific events, experiences, and episodes. This is like a mental "diary" of your life. Remembering your first day of school or your last birthday party are examples of episodic memories. Semantic Memory: Refers to general knowledge about the world, facts, concepts, and language. This is like a mental "encyclopedia." Knowing that the Earth is round, or that the capital of France is Paris, are examples of semantic memories. Double dissociation- K.C. and the Italian Woman The case of K.C. and the Italian woman is a classic example of a double dissociation in memory. It highlights the distinct roles played by episodic and semantic memory. K.C.: After sustaining a severe brain injury, K.C. lost his ability to form new episodic memories (a form of anterograde amnesia). He could no longer recall personal experiences or events. However, his semantic memory remained intact - he could still access general facts and knowledge. The Italian Woman: She experienced the opposite pattern. Due to a stroke, she lost her ability to access semantic memory. She could no longer access her general knowledge about the world, like what a car is or what her daughter's name is. However, her episodic memory was intact. Double Dissociation: These two cases show a double dissociation between episodic memory and semantic memory. One patient lost the ability to form episodic memories but retained semantic memory, while the other lost semantic memory but retained episodic memory. This suggests that these two types of memory are supported by different brain regions and operate independently. Short- vs Long-Term memory Short-term memory (STM): A temporary storage system that can hold around 7 items for a short period (around 20 seconds). It's like a temporary workspace for information. Long-term memory (LTM): A more permanent storage system that can hold vast amounts of information for an extended period. It's like a library of memories and knowledge. Penfield’s electrical stimulation- what does this show? Memories can be triggered by electrical stimulation: When a patient is stimulated, they can relive past memories. Memories are stored in different brain regions: Penfield's experiments showed that certain brain regions are associated with specific types of memories. For example, stimulating the temporal lobe can trigger verbal memories. Semanticization of memory- Remember/Know experiments Semanticization of memory refers to the process where an initially episodic memory loses its specific details and becomes more general, like a semantic memory. Over time, the details of when and where the memory happened fade, leaving only the general knowledge behind. Remember/Know Experiments: These experiments assess the extent to which memories have been semanticized. Participants are shown stimuli (words, images, etc.) and asked to respond whether they Remember the item being presented (recalling contextual details of that memory) or if they Know the item is familiar (having a general sense of knowing it). The more "know" responses increase as time passes, it indicates that that memory has been semanticized. For example: Episodic: You Remember being at a concert last week and seeing your favorite band. You remember the specific venue, the date, and even what you were wearing. Semanticized: Later, you Know that the band is very popular, but you don't Remember the specific details of the concert itself anymore. The goal of LTM The goal of long-term memory (LTM) is to store and retrieve information that we need to function in the world. Helps us know who we are and know the future. Explicit vs Implicit Memory Explicit Memory: Memories that we are consciously aware of and can easily recall. They are also called declarative memories. Think of it like "knowing that you know." Episodic: Memories of personal experiences and events (e.g., remembering your first day of school). Semantic: Memories of general knowledge and facts (e.g., knowing that Paris is the capital of France). Implicit Memory: Memories that we are not consciously aware of but still influence our behavior. We can't easily describe or recall these memories. Think of it like "knowing how to do something." Procedural: Memories for skills and procedures (e.g., riding a bike, typing). Priming: When exposure to a stimulus influences our response to a later stimulus. Procedural Memory Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory responsible for storing information about how to do things. Since it's unconscious, we can't easily recall or explain how we do these things. It's often referred to as "muscle memory." Examples of procedural memory: Riding a bike: Even if you haven't ridden a bike in years, you can likely still do it without thinking about it. Typing: You don't consciously think about where each key is; you just type. Playing a musical instrument: You can play a song without consciously thinking about the individual notes or chords. Repetition Priming Repetition priming is a type of implicit memory. This means that exposure to a stimulus (like a word or picture) makes it easier to process that stimulus (or a related stimulus) later on. For example, if you are shown the word "cat" multiple times, you will be faster to recognize the word "cat" later on. This is because your brain has become "primed" to recognize that word more quickly. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a type of learning that involves associating a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that already elicits a response. It's also known as Pavlovian conditioning. What is the take home message of double dissociations? Double dissociations show that different brain regions support different cognitive functions. It helps us understand how specific brain areas are specialized for certain tasks, providing evidence for the modularity of the brain. Explicit and implicit memory Explicit memory is conscious and we can easily recall it, while implicit memory is unconscious and affects our behavior without our awareness. We can't easily describe or recall implicit memories. I can give you detailed explanations of those if you'd like. Propaganda Effect The propaganda effect is a phenomenon where repeated exposure to information, even if it is false or misleading, can increase its believability and acceptance. In essence, repeated exposure can lead to familiarity, and familiarity can be mistaken for truth. This can easily happen with advertising, political campaigns, and news coverage. EX: POLITICS Long-term memory: Encoding, Retrieval, Consolidation Encoding: Transforming information into a format that the brain can store. Think of it as saving a file to your computer's hard drive. Retrieval: Accessing stored information from the long-term memory. This is like opening a file you previously saved. Consolidation: The process of making memories more stable and resistant to forgetting. This is like making a backup of your important files. Depth of processing Depth of processing is a theory that explains how the way we process information during encoding affects how well we can remember it later. It's like trying to create a sturdy building - the more effort and attention you put into the foundation (encoding), the stronger the structure (memory) will be. Shallow processing: This focuses on superficial features of information, like its appearance or sound. You might just glance at a word or repeat it to yourself without paying attention to its meaning. Think of skimming a book or memorizing a list of phone numbers. Deep processing: This involves understanding the meaning of information, making connections to prior knowledge, and elaborating on it. This is like thoroughly reading a book and reflecting on how the story relates to your experiences. Here's the key takeaway: The deeper the processing, the more likely you are to remember the information. Problems with depth of processing approach Difficult to measure: It can be difficult to objectively determine how "deep" someone is processing. If someone says they're deeply processing information, how do we know if they're being honest? Oversimplification: It may be oversimplified, as there might be other factors besides depth of processing that influence memory. For example, the organization of information or its emotional significance can also play a role. Not always applicable: Deep processing may not be necessary for all types of learning. For example, we may recall information from procedural memory (muscle memory) without thinking about the deeper meaning. Factors that aid in encoding and retrieval Encoding Attention: Paying attention to the information you want to learn is crucial! Meaningful processing: Connecting new information to your existing knowledge helps you understand it better and makes encoding stronger. Chunking: Organizing information into smaller, meaningful units makes it easier to remember. Elaboration: Adding details, examples, and connections to new information helps to encode it more deeply. Spacing: Spreading out learning over time is more effective than cramming. Retrieval Retrieval cues: Providing yourself with hints or prompts that help you access the information you want to recall. Context: Recalling information in the same context or environment where you learned it can help you remember it better. Practice: Repeatedly retrieving information strengthens the pathways in your brain, making it easier to recall in the future. Testing Effect The testing effect, also known as retrieval practice, is one of the most powerful strategies for learning and remembering. It refers to the fact that retrieving information from memory improves long-term retention. It's like exercising a muscle; the more you use it, the stronger it becomes! Essentially, the act of retrieving information helps you encode it more deeply and strengthens the connections between brain cells. Cued recall Cued recall is a method of testing memory where people are given hints or prompts to help them retrieve information. These hints are usually in the form of words or phrases that are related to the information being tested. For example, if you were asked to recall a list of animals, you might be given a cue like "mammal" or "pet" to help you remember. Encoding specificity Encoding specificity is a memory principle that states that retrieval is best when the conditions at retrieval match the conditions at encoding. State dependent learning State-dependent learning is a specific example of encoding specificity. It means that our ability to recall information is influenced by our internal state at the time of encoding and retrieval. Match the mood: For example, if you learned information while feeling happy, you're more likely to recall that information when you're happy again. If you were feeling stressed when you studied, you might find it easier to remember that information if you're also feeling stressed during the test. Distributed vs massed practice effect Distributed vs. massed practice is about how we spread out our learning over time. Massed practice: All your studying is crammed into one long session. Think of pulling an all-nighter before an exam. Distributed practice: You break up your studying into shorter sessions spread out over a longer period. Think of studying for 30 minutes each day for a week. The effect: Distributed practice leads to better long-term retention. Even though it might seem like you're covering less material at a time in distributed practice, the spaced-out repetitions improve your ability to recall that information later. This is because you're giving your brain a chance to consolidate the information more effectively. Matching the cognitive task "Matching the cognitive task" refers to the idea that the way we learn information should be aligned with how we'll be tested on it. If you're going to be tested on your ability to recall information, the best way to study is to practice recalling it. If you're going to be tested on your ability to apply information, the best way to learn is to practice applying it. Synaptic vs systems level consolidation: Synaptic Consolidation: This occurs at the level of individual synapses, the connections between neurons, within the first few hours after learning. It involves strengthening the connections between neurons by modifying the strength of the synapses. Systems level Consolidation: This occurs over a longer period, weeks or months, and involves a transfer of memory from the hippocampus to other brain areas. This process is thought to make memories more resistant to forgetting and less dependent on the hippocampus. What are the differences in time scale? Synaptic consolidation: Occurs within hours following learning. Systems Consolidation: Takes place over a longer period, spanning weeks or months. Hebbian learning- neurons that fire together wire together "Neurons that fire together, wire together" is a simplified way of describing Hebbian learning. It's a principle that helps explain how learning occurs: Strengthening Connections: When two neurons are activated at the same time, the connection between them strengthens. This is because repeated co-activation of neurons leads to a more efficient and stable connection. It's like creating a well-worn pathway by repeatedly taking the same route. This principle is important for understanding how new memories are formed and how existing memories are strengthened. Standard model of consolidation The standard model of consolidation proposes that memory formation involves two main steps: 1. Encoding and initial consolidation in the hippocampus: This is the initial stage where new memories are formed and stored in the hippocampus. 2. Transfer of memories to other cortical areas: Over time, memories are gradually transferred from the hippocampus to other cortical areas (like the prefrontal cortex) where they become more stable and independent of the hippocampus. This transfer contributes to the long-term retention of memories and their resistance to forgetting. Hippocampus: involved in encoding, initial consolidation. The hippocampus is essential for encoding new memories and their initial consolidation. This means it plays a critical role in: Transforming experiences into memories: The hippocampus helps to create a representation of the experience and store it as a memory. Binding different aspects of the memories together: It integrates information from different sensory modalities (sight, sound, smell, touch) and helps us make a coherent memory. Stabilizing the new memory: It helps to make the new memory more resistant to forgetting in the early stages. This is why damage to the hippocampus can lead to problems with forming new memories (anterograde amnesia). Memories then transferred to other brain areas After initial consolidation in the hippocampus, memories are gradually transferred to other areas of the cortex. This transfer helps to stabilize memories and make them less dependent on the hippocampus. Graded amnesia and Retrograde amnesia Graded amnesia: This is a type of retrograde amnesia where there's a gradual loss of memories, with older memories being more intact than newer ones. This usually occurs after a brain injury or trauma. For example, someone might forget events from the past few years but still be able to recall childhood memories. Retrograde amnesia: This is a type of amnesia where the person has difficulty recalling past events. This can vary in severity, from forgetting a few minutes of information to losing decades of memories. It can occur after TBI (traumatic brain injury), stroke, surgery, or other medical conditions. Multiple Trace Hypothesis The Multiple Trace Hypothesis proposes that long-term memories are not stored in a single location, but are spread across many different brain areas. The hippocampus isn't just a temporary holding place for memories. It continues to play a role in retrieving even older memories and contributing to their strength and stability. This is a phenomenon in which featured can be bound to the wrong object= Illusory conjunction A type of implicit memory that allows you to learn new skills =