Attention Mechanisms and Salience

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Questions and Answers

What is the main characteristic of covert attention?

It guarantees quick reactions.

It only occurs in social situations.

It requires moving the head.

It is not visible to others. (correct)

Which of the following is an example of overt attention?

Walking while observing a red car.

Thinking about a conversation you overheard.

Hearing your name across a room.

Making rapid eye movements. (correct)

In Posner’s cueing paradigm, how do participants demonstrate covert attention?

By responding faster when the target appears in the cued location. (correct)

By verbally stating the location of the target.

By quickly moving their eyes to the cue.

By focusing solely on the cue without reacting.

What describes a fixation in terms of eye movements?

It is a pause where gaze is steady on a point. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor influences the salience of an object in visual perception?

Its contrast with the surroundings. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key reason for needing selective attention?

To manage limited cognitive resources. Signup and view all the answers

How does high salience affect attention?

It draws attention more effectively. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following actions exemplifies covert attention during a sports game?

Anticipating the pass without watching the receiver. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is associated with triggering verbal memories?

Temporal lobe Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory is most affected in a patient with hippocampal damage?

Episodic memory Signup and view all the answers

What does semanticization of memory primarily involve?

Losing specific details of an episodic memory over time Signup and view all the answers

In Remember/Know experiments, what does an increase in 'know' responses indicate?

The memory has been semanticized Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of short-term memory (STM)?

Has a limited capacity of around 7 items Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory refers to personal experiences and events?

Episodic memory Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates the concept of double dissociation in memory?

One patient loses episodic memory while another retains it but loses semantic memory. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes semantic memory?

It consists of general knowledge and facts about the world. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of long-term memory (LTM)?

To store and retrieve information needed to function Signup and view all the answers

What does the case of K.C. demonstrate regarding memory systems?

Episodic memory can be retained while semantic memory is lost, or vice versa. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory is characterized by unconscious awareness but influences behavior?

Implicit memory Signup and view all the answers

Priming in memory refers to:

Influencing responses to stimuli through prior exposure Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is primarily associated with short-term memory?

Prefrontal cortex Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes explicit memory from implicit memory?

Explicit memory requires conscious awareness Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between episodic and semantic memory?

Episodic memory is specific to events, while semantic memory is about general knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Penfield’s electrical stimulation in memory research?

It provided evidence for the localization of memories in the brain. Signup and view all the answers

What strategy is known to improve long-term retention by retrieving information from memory?

Testing effect Signup and view all the answers

How does cued recall function in the process of memory retrieval?

It uses hints or prompts to help retrieve information. Signup and view all the answers

What does the principle of encoding specificity state about retrieval?

Retrieval conditions should match encoding conditions. Signup and view all the answers

Which learning method leads to better long-term retention according to the content?

Distributed practice. Signup and view all the answers

State-dependent learning suggests that recalling information is influenced by what factor?

The internal emotional state during learning. Signup and view all the answers

Why does distributed practice enhance memory retention according to the content?

It gives the brain time to effectively consolidate information. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does repeated practice have on memory pathways in the brain?

It strengthens them, making recall easier. Signup and view all the answers

When is cued recall most beneficial for information retrieval?

When hints are related to the information being recalled. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of synaptic consolidation?

Strengthening connections between neurons Signup and view all the answers

What is the time frame in which systems level consolidation occurs?

Weeks to months Signup and view all the answers

Which principle describes the phenomenon where neurons strengthen their connections when activated together?

Hebbian learning Signup and view all the answers

What is the first stage of memory formation according to the standard model of consolidation?

Encoding and initial consolidation in the hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What role does the hippocampus play in memory formation?

It encodes new memories and supports initial consolidation Signup and view all the answers

How does the 'matching the cognitive task' concept influence study methods?

Testing on application requires studying through analysis. Signup and view all the answers

What advantage does systems level consolidation provide to memories?

It increases resistance to forgetting. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not a characteristic of Hebbian learning?

Connections between co-activated neurons weaken over time. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Attention

Covert attention is directing your focus without moving your eyes or head. It is internal and can't be seen by others.
Overt attention is when you physically move your eyes and head to focus on something.
Saccades are quick eye movements that shift your gaze from one point to another. They are overt because they involve physical movement.
Fixations are pauses in eye movement where your gaze is held steady on a specific point. They are covert because the eyes remain fixed on the object.
Posner’s cueing paradigm shows that participants respond faster to a target in a cued location, even when instructed not to move their eyes, suggesting they can shift attention without eye movements.

Salience

Refers to how much something stands out or attracts attention.
High Salience: Something that is very noticeable or important compared to its surroundings.
Low Salience: Something that blends in with the environment and is not as noticeable.

Episodic & Semantic Memory

Episodic Memory: Memories of personal experiences and events (like a mental diary).
Semantic Memory: General knowledge about the world, facts, concepts, and language (like a mental encyclopedia).
Double dissociation: The case of K.C. who lost the ability to form new episodic memories but retained semantic memory, and the Italian woman who lost semantic memory but retained episodic memories, shows that these two types of memory are distinct and involve different brain regions.

Short & Long-Term Memory

Short-term Memory (STM): Temporary storage for a short period (around 20 seconds).
Long-term Memory (LTM): More permanent storage, can hold vast amounts of information for long periods.
Penfield's electrical stimulation: Showed that memories can be triggered by electrical stimulation and different brain regions are associated with specific types of memories.
Semanticization of memory: The process of an episodic memory becoming more general and losing specific details, like a semantic memory.
Remember/Know Experiments: Assess how memories have been semantically transformed. Participants indicate whether they "Remember" an item (recalling context) or "Know" it is familiar (general sense of knowing). More "Know" responses indicate more semantic transformation.

Explicit vs Implicit Memory

Explicit Memory (Declarative): Memories we are consciously aware of ("Knowing that you know").
- Episodic: Memories of personal events.
- Semantic: Knowledge about the world.
Implicit Memory: Memories we are not consciously aware of but still influence our behavior ("Knowing how to do something").
- Procedural: Memories for skills and procedures.
- Priming: When exposure to a stimulus influences our response to a later stimulus.
- Context: Remembering information is better in the same context or environment where you learned it.
- Practice: Repeatedly retrieving information strengthens the pathways in your brain, making it easier to recall.

Testing Effect & Cued Recall

Testing Effect (Retrieval practice): Retrieving information from memory improves long-term retention.
Cued Recall: A method of testing memory using hints or prompts to help retrieve information.

Encoding Specificity & State-Dependent Learning

Encoding specificity: Retrieval is best when the conditions at retrieval match the conditions at encoding.
State-dependent learning: Our ability to recall information is influenced by our internal state at the time of encoding and retrieval.

Distributed vs. Massed Practice

Massed practice: Cramming all studying into one long session.
Distributed practice: Breaking up studying into shorter sessions spread out over a longer period.
The effect: Distributed practice leads to better long-term retention, allowing the brain to consolidate information more effectively.

Matching the Cognitive Task

The way you learn information should be aligned with how you will be tested.
Recall: Practice recalling information.
Apply: Practice applying information.

Synaptic & Systems Level Consolidation

Synaptic consolidation: Strengthening connections between neurons at the individual synapse level within hours after learning.
Systems level consolidation: Transferring memories from the hippocampus to other brain areas over weeks or months, making memories more stable.
Differences in time scale: Synaptic (hours) vs. Systems (weeks to months).

Hebbian Learning

"Neurons that fire together, wire together": A simplified explanation of Hebbian learning, stating that repeated co-activation of neurons strengthens connections.
Strengthening Connections: Creates more efficient and stable connections between neurons.

Standard Model of Consolidation

Step 1: Encoding and initial consolidation in the hippocampus.
Step 2: Transfer of memories from the hippocampus to other cortical areas over time.
Hippocampus: Involved in encoding and initial consolidation.

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts of attention, including covert and overt attention, saccades, and fixations. Additionally, it discusses salience and its impact on how we perceive our environment. Test your understanding of these foundational psychological concepts.