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The Cognitive Revolution and The Birth of Cognitive Psychology A Historical Perspective Dipanjan Ray [email protected] Department of Psychology, Ashoka University August 27, 2024 Figure: Purity1 1 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 2 / 30 The Dress Figure: The Dress2 2 Source: Twitter Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 3 / 30 Checker shadow illusion Figure: Optical Illusions Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 4 / 30 Checker shadow illusion Figure: Optical Illusions Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 5 / 30 Overview Overview Points to be covered 1. What is cognitive psychology: some working definitions 2. Historical overview 2.1 Introspection 2.2 Behaviourism 2.3 Criticisms against behaviourism 2.3.1 Criticisms from within 2.3.2 Criticisms from outside 2.4 Cognitivism and cognitive psychology 2.4.1 Computer analogy and information processing approach Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 6 / 30 Definitions Definition Figure: When philosophers debate3 3 Source: Twitter @PhilosophyMtttrs Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 7 / 30 Definitions Some Working Definitions Psychology The study of mental processes and behaviour Cognitive Psychology The study of mental processes Cognitive Neuroscience The study of how the brain enables the mind Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 8 / 30 Definitions Cognitive Science Figure: The Cognitive Hexagon4 4 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 9 / 30 History Introspection Introspection Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879 Introspection: Intro = within, spection = to look Highly trained assistants would be given a stimulus such as a light or a ticking metronome and would report what the stimulus made them think and feel. The same stimulus, physical surroundings and instructions were given to each person. Aim was to record thoughts and sensations, and to analyze them into their constituent elements in order to get at the underlying structure. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 10 / 30 History Behaviourism Classical Conditioning Figure: Pavlov’s Experiment5 5 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 11 / 30 History Behaviourism Classical Conditioning Figure: Pavlov’s Dog’s Experiment6 6 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 12 / 30 History Behaviourism Classical Conditioning Real life examples Getting a flu shot makes a child cry. With time, child cries at the sight of the needle. The first time someone eats a certain rotten food gets sick from it, and vomits. Subsequently, the food’s appearance, smell, or taste can induce nausea or vomiting. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Individuals who are exposed to a traumatic event, such as a natural disaster or violent crime experienced intense fear in the event. Location, objects, or sound are cues that could be associated with it. When such a cue is present, it can trigger flashbacks, nightmares, avoidance etc in sufferers. Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 13 / 30 History Behaviourism Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) Classical vs Operant conditioning Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 14 / 30 History Behaviourism The Law of Effect responses that pro- “ duce a satisfying effect in a particular situation be- come more likely to oc- cur again in that situa- tion, and responses that produce a discomforting ef- fect become less likely to occur again in that situa- ” tion Edward Thordike (1874-1949) Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 15 / 30 History Behaviourism Skinner Box Figure: B.F.Skinner (1904-1990)7 7 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 16 / 30 History Behaviourism Operant Conditioning Real life examples Examples of positive reinforcement A parent gives their child an extra allowance (reinforcer) for doing the dishes (desired behaviour). A manager offers bonuses (reinforcer) to the workers for finishing the project on time (desired behaviour). Examples of negative reinforcement A teenager cleans up her room (desired behaviour) so that her phone won’t be taken away (unpleasant event). Worker’s won’t get yelled at (unpleasant event) when they arrive at work on time (desired behavior). Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 17 / 30 History Behaviourism Jonh B Watson Give me a dozen healthy in- “ fants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tenden- cies, abilities, vocations and the ” race of his ancestors John B Watson (1878-1958) Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 18 / 30 History Behaviourism: Criticisms from within Criticisms from within: Edward Tolman Figure: Tolman Honzik, 1930 Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 19 / 30 History Behaviourism: Criticisms from within Criticisms from within: Edward Tolman Figure: Tolman Honzik, 1930 Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 20 / 30 History Behaviourism: Criticisms from within Criticisms from within: Edward Tolman Figure: Behaviourist vs Cognitive models Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 21 / 30 History Behaviourism: Criticisms from outside Criticisms from outside: Noam Chomsky Verbal Behaviour (1957) Noam Chomsky Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 22 / 30 History Behaviourism: Criticisms from outside Human Language is Boundless! John is easy to please. John is eager to please. Visiting relatives can be annoying. The chicken is ready to eat. Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 23 / 30 Cognitivism In Search of a Metaphor! Tolman rejected view associated with Watson of “organisms as slot-machines” in which any given stimulus elicited a reflexive response, as putting a coin into a vending machine does. Rather, Tolman saw an organism as “a complex machine capable of various adjustments such that, when one adjustment was in force” a given stimulus would produce one response, while under a different internal adjustment, it would call out a different response. Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 24 / 30 Cognitivism Computer Analogy and Information Processing Approach Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence In 1956, Allen Newell and Herbert Simon describe a device that was able to prove one of the theorems from Whitehead and Russell’s (1910–1913) Principia Mathematica. A year later, their General Problem Solver was able to solve a number of other problems in logic, mathematics, and chess. They created the program by identifying the techniques humans use in problem solving, obtained through introspective reports (called protocols) delivered by subjects as they worked on problem-solving tasks. DENDRAL analyzed data from mass spectrographs to find the underlying molecular structures of organic compounds MYCIN diagnosed infectious blood diseases ANALOGY could solve visual geometric analogy problems STUDENT could solve algebra story problems by translating ordinary English into manipulable equations. Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 25 / 30 Cognitivism Computer Analogy and Information Processing Approach Computer Analogy Information Processing Approach The assumption that the human mind is an information Figure: Information processing in the mind processor, like a a computer. a Source: https://www.psychologywizard.net/cognitive.html Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 26 / 30 Cognitivism Computer Analogy and Information Processing Approach An information theoretic definition of Cognition...the term "cognition" refers “ to all processes by which the sen- sory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and ” used. Ulric Neisser (1928-2012) Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 27 / 30 Cognitivism Computer or not a computer The New York Times vs The Guardian Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 28 / 30 Summary Basic Assumptions of Cognitivism Some learning processes are unique to human beings, complex language is an example. Learning involves the formation of mental representations or associations that are not necessarily reflected in overt behavior changes. People are actively involved in the learning process rather than being passive victims of environmental conditions. Information processing in humans resembles that in computers Cognitive processes are the focus of study Dipanjan Ray · Cognitive Psychology · August 27, 2024 29 / 30 The Experimental Methods of Cognitive Psychology Windows to Mind Dipanjan Ray [email protected] Department of Psychology, Ashoka University August 29, 2024 Overview Overview Points to be covered 1. Controlled laboratory experiments 2. Naturalistic observations 3. Virtual reality 4. Case studies 5. Self report 6. Eye tracking 7. Neuroimaging 7.1 Electroencephalography (EEG) 7.2 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 2 / 55 Tools Controlled Laboratory Experiments Controlled Laboratory Experiments A hypothesis is addressed by running an experiment in which the independent variable of interest is manipulated and the effect of the manipulation is assessed by measuring the dependent variables ( e.g., response time, the percentage of correct responses, the type of errors made and so on). Obtain samples of performance at a particular time and space. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 3 / 55 Tools Controlled Laboratory Experiments Controlled Laboratory Experiments: Example Sternberg’s experiment (1966) Hypothesis: We access the content of our short term memory serially/ simulataneously? Independent Variables: Size of memory set Whether followed by target/foil Dependent Variable: Reaction time Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 4 / 55 Tools Controlled Laboratory Experiments Controlled Laboratory Experiments: Example Sternberg’s experiment (1966) Figure: Results Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 5 / 55 Tools Controlled Laboratory Experiments Controlled Laboratory Experiments: Example Sternberg’s experiment (1966) Figure: Sternberg’s analysis of the sequence of information-processing stages in his task Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 6 / 55 Tools Controlled Laboratory Experiments Controlled Laboratory Experiments: Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths: Easy to administer, score, and do statistical analysis Weaknesses: Difficulty in generalizing results beyond a specific time, place, and task settings. Discrepancies between behaviour in real life and in the laboratory (low ecological validity). Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 7 / 55 Tools Controlled Laboratory Experiments Controlled Laboratory Experiments: Some factors contributing to low ecological validity 1. In controlled lab experiments, test environments are designed to reduce distractions, confusion, and fatigue. 2. Cognitive studies routinely employ abstract or arbitrary stimuli, such as using paired colours to establish stimulus-response rules, that bear very little resemblance to real-world elements. 3. Individuals behave differently when being observed vs when not. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 8 / 55 Tools Controlled Laboratory Experiments Low Ecological Validity: Example Imagine a research study simulating a plane crash where participant adrenaline levels, heart rate, and ability to follow instructions afterwards were recorded as they experienced a simulation of the phases of a plane crash. Although participants had higher levels of adrenaline and high heart rates, they were still able to follow instructions after the simulation. When studied outside of the controlled simulation environment, for example, during a real crash, the results were not accurate. Individual’s did have higher heart rates and adrenaline rates, but they could not follow instructions 1. 1 Source: https://study.com/learn/lesson/ecological-validity- significance-examples.html Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 9 / 55 Tools Naturalistic Observations Naturalistic Observations Observe real-life situations, as in classrooms, work-settings, and homes. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 10 / 55 Tools Naturalistic Observations Naturalistic Observations Strengths: Access to rich contexual information Weaknesses: Lack of experimental control Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 11 / 55 Tools Case Studies Case Studies Engage in intensive study of single individuals, drawing general conclusions about behavior. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 12 / 55 Tools Case Studies Case Studies Strengths: Access to detailed information about individuals, including historical and current contexts. May lead to specialized applications for special groups (e.g., prodigies, persons with brain damage) Weaknesses: Limited generalizability due to small sample size and nonrepresentativeness of sample Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 13 / 55 Tools Case Studies Louis Victor Leborgne (“Tan Tan”) Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 14 / 55 Tools Case Studies The Curious Case of Phineas Gage (1823-1860)! “He is fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom), manifesting but little deference for his fellows, impatient of restraint or advice when it conflicts with his desires.... A child in his intellectual capacity and manifestations, he has the animal passions of a strong man.... His mind was radically changed, so decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was ‘no longer Gage.” a a Harlow JM. Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head. Publ Mass Med Soc. 1868;2:327–347. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 15 / 55 Tools Self Reports Self Reports Obtain participants’ reports of own cognition in progress or as recollected. Examples: Verbal protocols, self-rating, diaries. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 16 / 55 Tools Self Reports Self Reports Strengths: Access to introspective insights from participants’ point of view. Weaknesses: May influence cognitive process being reported Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 17 / 55 Tools Eye Tracking Eye Tracking Measures either the point of gaze (where one is looking) or the motion of an eye relative to the head. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 18 / 55 Tools Eye Tracking Eye Tracking Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 19 / 55 Tools Eye Tracking Eye Tracking Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 20 / 55 Tools Eye Tracking Eye Tracking Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 21 / 55 Tools Eye Tracking Eye Tracking Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 22 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) EEG measures electrical activity generated by the synchronized activity of thousands of neurons using small, metal discs (electrodes) attached to the scalp Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 23 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) Epileptic spike and wave discharges monitored EEG Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 24 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) Event Related Potential An event-related potential (ERP) is the measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event. More formally, it is any stereotyped electrophysiological response to a sensory/cognitive/motor event. Example: N100, P300 Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 25 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) P300 Typically elicited during an oddball target detection task by infrequently presented salient stimuli interspersed among frequent standard stimuli Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 26 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) P300 The P300 is a positive voltage deflection in the stimulus-locked ERP occurring 300 milliseconds after the stimulus. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 27 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) P300: Application in locked-in syndrome A rare and serious neurological disorder that happens when a part of your brainstem is damaged, usually from a stroke. People with LiS have total paralysis but still have consciousness and their normal cognitive abilities. Brain computer interface Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 28 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) Spectral Analysis Power spectrum and spectrogram of a sinusoidal wave of single frequency 2. 2 Ng, M. C., Jing, J., Westover, M. B. (2019). Atlas of intensive care quantitative EEG. Springer Publishing Company. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 29 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) Spectral Analysis Power spectrum and spectrogram of two summed sinusoidal waves 3. 3 Ng, M. C., Jing, J., Westover, M. B. (2019). Atlas of intensive care quantitative EEG. Springer Publishing Company. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 30 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) Spectral Analysis EEG Waves Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 31 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) Spectral Analysis Power spectrum and spectrogram of posterior dominant rhythm (PDR) in the alpha frequency range, and a "slow-wave" EEG. 4. 4 Ng, M. C., Jing, J., Westover, M. B. (2019). Atlas of intensive care quantitative EEG. Springer Publishing Company. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 32 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) Spectral Analysis Experimental Paradigms 5. 5 Bogaerts et al., 2021 Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 33 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) Spectral Analysis Spectrogram 6. 6 Bogaerts et al., 2021 Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 34 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) Spectral Analysis Change in beta power with trials 7. 7 Bogaerts et al., 2021 Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 35 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Electroencephalography (EEG) Strengths: The ability to see brain activity as it unfolds in real time, at the level of milliseconds (thousandths of a second). Weaknesses: It’s hard to figure out where in the brain the electrical activity is coming from. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 36 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 37 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 38 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Figure: From neural activation to BOLD signal8 8 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 39 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Hemodynamic Response Function Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 40 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 41 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Cognitive Subtraction Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 42 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Example (Buchweitz et al., 2009) Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 43 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Strengths: Good spatial resolution. Weaknesses: Poor temporal resolution. Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 44 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Precautions Neural correlates of interspecies perspective taking in the post-mortem Atlantic Salmon:Craig M. Bennett et al., 2009 Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 45 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Integration of information in Brain Brain Networks Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 46 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Correlation Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 47 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Autism and brain connectivity Supekar et al., 2013 Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 48 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Alzheimer’s disease and brain connectivity Wang et al., 2015 Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 49 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Problem with correlation Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 50 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Problem with correlation Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 51 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Granger Causality Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 52 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Aging and directed connectivity Das et al., 2020 Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 53 / 55 Tools Neuoimaging Depression and effective connectivity Dipanjan Ray · Experimental Methods · August 29, 2024 54 / 55 Perception What It Is And What It Is Not Dipanjan Ray [email protected] Department of Psychology, Ashoka University September 19, 2024 Overview Points to be covered 1. What is Perception 2. Conventional approach to perception: Perception as a bottom-up, integrative process 2.1 Visual pathway 3. Problems with the conventional view 4. Gestalt psychology 5. Importance of prior knowledge 5.1 Helmontz’s theory of unconscious inference 5.2 Bayesian brain and Predictive Coding Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 2 / 86 Definitions Definitions Sensation: The process by which we receive information from the environment. Perception: Experiences resulting from stimulation of the senses. Perception: The process by which the cognitive system constructs an internal representation of the outside world. Perception: The process of selecting, integrating, organizing, and interpreting sensory information. “Perception is controlled hallucination” Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 3 / 86 Definitions Representationalism The philosophical position that the mind perceives mental images (representations) of material objects outside the mind, not the objects themselves. Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 4 / 86 Definitions Sensation vs Perception Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 5 / 86 Definitions Sensation vs Perception Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 6 / 86 Definitions Sensation vs Perception Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 7 / 86 Definitions Sensation vs Perception Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 8 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Conventional Approach to Perception Perception is a bottom-up, integrative process Starts with actual external stimuli More concrete, simple sensory information are processed in “lower” cortical regions Progressive more abstract, complex features are processes in the “higher” cortical regions as a result of integration of information from the lower regions Stimulus-driven Passive Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 9 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Sensory Modalities Sensory modality: One feature of a complex stimulus; for example, temperature, pressure, sound, taste, or light. Sensory Receptors: Specialized neurons or nerve endings that respond to a specific sensory modality. Transduction: The process (taking place in sensory receptors) of converting physical stimulation into signals that are interpretable by the brain Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 10 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Sensory Modalities Figure: Sensory Modalities 1 1 Foundations Of Cognitive Psychology by Fernand Gobet et al. Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 11 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception The spectrum of electromagnetic radiations Figure: Electromagnetic radiations 2 2 Foundations Of Cognitive Psychology by Fernand Gobet et al. Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 12 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception The spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiations and Sound Waves Dipanjan Ray · PerceptionFigure: · September Electromagnetic 19, 2024 and Sound Waves 13 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Infrared Images Figure: Thermal Image 3 3 Foundations Of Cognitive Psychology by Fernand Gobet et al. Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 14 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Infrared Images Figure: Thermal Image 4 Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 15 / 86 4 Foundations Of Cognitive Conventional Psychology by Fernand Gobet et al. Approach to Perception Infrared Images Figure: Thermal Image 5 5 Foundations Of Cognitive Psychology by Fernand Gobet et al. · · Dipanjan Ray Perception September 19, 2024 16 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Sensory Coding Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 17 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Microelectrode, Edgar Adrian Figure: Microelectrode 6 6 Source internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 18 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Microelectrode, Edgar Adrian Figure: Action potentials recorded from an axon in response to three levels of pressure stimulation on the skin: (a) light, (b) medium, and (c) strong.8 7 Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience by E. Bruce Goldstein 8 Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Dipanjan Ray · Perception Experience · September by E. Bruce 19, 2024 Goldstein 19 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception The Basis of Sensation, Edgar Adrian (1928) If nerve impulses “are crowded closely together the sensation is intense, if they are separated by long intervals the sensation is correspondingly feeble” (p. 7). Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 20 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Law of specific nerve energies, Johannes Peter Müller (1835) The nature of perception is defined by the pathway over which the sensory information is carried. The difference in perception of seeing, hearing, and touch is not caused by differences in the stimuli themselves but by the different nervous structures that these stimuli excite. Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 21 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Synaesthesia Synesthesia is a neurological condition where stimulation of one sensory modality leads to involuntary experiences in another sensory modality. A synesthete might "see" colors when they hear sounds or "taste" shapes. It’s a blending or crossing of sensory experiences. The brains of synesthetes might have more or differently organized neural connections between sensory regions than non-synesthetes leading to an increased cross-activation between different sensory regions of the brain. Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 22 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Vision Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 23 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Eye Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 24 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Retinal Layers Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 25 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Central and Peripheral Vision Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 26 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Small Medium and Large Cones Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 27 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Colour Blindness Color blindness is the decreased ability to see color or differences in color The most common cause of color blindness is an inherited problem or variation in the functionality of one or more of the three classes of cone cells in the retina, which mediate color vision. Red–green color blindness is the most common form, followed by blue–yellow color blindness and total color blindness Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 28 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Visual Pathway Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 29 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Visual Dual Stream Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 30 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Visual Receptive Field Receptive Field refers to the region of visual space where a luminous stimulus could drive electrical responses in a single neuron. Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 31 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception On-Off Cells Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 32 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Simple and Complex Cells Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 33 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Simple and Complex Cells Figure: Hubel and Wiesel, 1962 Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 34 / 86 After Primary Visual Cortex Conventional Approach to Perception Visual Dual Stream Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 36 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Two Models of Visual Dual Stream Ungerleider-Mishkin (1982) Goodale-Milner (1992) Input Based Model Output Based Model Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 37 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Ungerleider-Mishkin (1982) Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 38 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Two Models of Visual Dual Stream Ungerleider-Mishkin (1982) Goodale-Milner (1992) Input Based Model Output Based Model Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 39 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Goodale-Milner (1992): Patient D.F Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 40 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Goodale-Milner (1992): Patient D.F Visual agnosia is an impairment in recognition of visually presented objects. It is not due to a deficit in visual acuity, visual field, color vision, brightness discrimination, language, memory, or intellect. Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 41 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 42 / 86 Comparing Two Models of Visual Dual Stream: An fMRI Study Conventional Approach to Perception Both the models predict similar activation in some situations Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 44 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception However, they differ in other situations UM model GM model Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 45 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Methods: Experimental Paradigm Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 46 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Results: Position Perception: Both Ventral and Dorsal Stream and Premotor Cortex Activation Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 47 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Coding of Complex Stimuli Figure: Recording from inferior temporal cortex 9 9 Desimone et al., 1984 Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 48 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Sensory Coding Figure: Specificity and Population Coding.10 10 Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience by E. Bruce Goldstein Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 49 / 86 Conventional Approach to Perception Bottom-Up Integrative Approach (Thomas Serre, 2014 Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 50 / 86 Problems With Conventional View Problems with conventional view Optical Illusion Optical Illusion Figure: White Pieces and Black Pieces 11 11 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 52 / 86 Problems with conventional view Bistable Images Bistable Images Figure: Duck or Rabbit 12 12 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 53 / 86 Problems with conventional view Bistable Images Bistable Images Figure: Old or Young Lady 13 13 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 54 / 86 Problems with conventional view Bistable Images Bistable Images Figure: Rubin’s vase 14 14 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 55 / 86 Problems with conventional view Bistable Images Bistable Images Figure: Airavatesvara Temple, Tamil Nadu, 12th century 15 15 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 56 / 86 Problems with conventional view Impossible Images Impossible Images Figure: Impossible triangle 16 16 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 57 / 86 Problems with conventional view Impossible Images Impossible Images Figure: Impossible Staircase 17 17 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 58 / 86 Alternative Approaches Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Helmholtz’s theory of Unconscious Inference Predictive Coding Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 59 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Gestalt Psychology Figure: Founders 18 18 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 60 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Gestalt Psychology Perception can not be explained by simply adding up its constituents. “the whole is more than the sum of its parts”. Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 61 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Prägnanz (Good figure, Simplicity) “People will perceive and interpret ambiguous or complex images as the simplest form(s) possible.” Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 62 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Prägnanz Figure: Interlocking Circles 19 19 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 63 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Prägnanz Figure: Clipped Circles and leaf patterns 20 20 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 64 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Proximity “Perception clusters objects according to their proximity” Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 65 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Proximity Figure: Proximity 21 21 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 66 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Proximity Figure: Proximity 22 22 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 67 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Similarity “Perception clusters objects according to their similarity.” Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 68 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Similarity Figure: Similarity 23 23 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 69 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Similarity Figure: Similarity 24 24 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 70 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Similarity Figure: Waves, by Wilma Hurskainen 25 25 Source:Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience by E. Bruce Goldstein Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 71 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Good Continuity “ People perceive objects in alignment as forming smooth, unbroken contours.” Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 72 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Good Continuity Figure: Continuity 26 26 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 73 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Closure “ People will fill in blanks to perceive a complete object whenever an external stimulus partially matches that object” Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 74 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Closure Figure: Kanizsa Triangle 27 27 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 75 / 86 Alternative Approaches Gestalt Psychology Law of Closure Figure: Closure 28 28 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 76 / 86 Alternative Approaches Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference Figure: Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (1821 – 1894) 29 29 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 77 / 86 Alternative Approaches Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference The image on the retina is ambiguous. Inverse projection problem Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 78 / 86 Alternative Approaches Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference Figure: The image on retina is ambiguous 30 30 Source:Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience by E. Bruce Goldstein Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 79 / 86 Alternative Approaches Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference Likelihood principle: We perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli we have received. Unconscious Inference: Our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions, or inferences, that we make about the environment. Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 80 / 86 Alternative Approaches Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference Depth Perception: A Few Proposed Mechanisms Monoocular Cues Overlap (Interposition) Texture Gradient Binocular Cues Stereopsis Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 81 / 86 Alternative Approaches Predictive Coding Importance of expectation, experience Figure: Convex or Concave 31 31 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 82 / 86 Alternative Approaches Predictive Coding Hollow Face Illusion Figure: Hollow Face Illusion 32 32 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 83 / 86 Alternative Approaches Predictive Coding Predictive Coding Srinivasan et al., (1982) Mumford, (1992) Rao and Ballard (1999) Friston, K. (2009) Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 84 / 86 Alternative Approaches Predictive Coding Neural Substrate of Predictive Coding Figure: Predictive Coding Dipanjan Ray · Perception · September 19, 2024 85 / 86 Attention Dipanjan Ray [email protected] Department of Psychology, Ashoka University September 25, 2024 Overview Inattentional blindness and Change blindness What is attention Cocktail party effect Models of attention Selection models of attention Early selection models Late selection models Perceptual load theory of attention Visual search: central and peripheral vision Overt and covert attention Bottom-up and top-down attention Ventral and dorsal attention networks Hemineglect Object based attention, Divided attention, Automaticity Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 2 / 47 Attention An Experiment on Attention Simons and Chabris (1999). Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 3 / 47 Attention Inattentional Blindness Inattentional Blindness occurs when an individual fails to perceive an unexpected stimulus in plain sight, purely as a result of a lack of attention rather than any vision defects or deficits. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 4 / 47 Attention Change Blindness Change Blindness occurs when a stimulus undergoes a change without this being noticed by its observer. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 5 / 47 Attention Attention Everyone knows “ what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simul- taneously possible objects or trains of thought...It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with ” others. William James (1890) Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 6 / 47 Attention Attention Attention is the behavioral and cognitive process of selectively concentrating on a discrete aspect of information while ignoring other perceivable information. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 7 / 47 Attention Serial Bottleneck Figure: Bottleneck1 1 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 8 / 47 Attention Cocktail Party Effect Figure: Cocktail Party Effect2 2 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 9 / 47 Models Selection Models Selection Models of Attention Research Questions: What is the level at which information is processed when we decide to pay attention to a stimulus? What happens to the stimuli to which we do not attend? 1. Early Selection Models 2. Late Selection Models Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 10 / 47 Models Selection Models Dichotic Listening Paradigm: Colin Cherry (1953) Figure: Dichotic Listening and Shadowing3 3 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 11 / 47 Models Selection Models Dichotic Listening Paradigms Mostly the physical properties (e.g., tonality, pitch, accent etc.) of the unattended message were processed. Participant could report whether the unattended message was spoken by a male or female, they couldn’t report what was being said in the unattended ear. Neville Moray (1959) showed that participants were unaware of a word that had been repeated 35 times in the unattended ear. People did not notice if the voice in the unattended message switched from English to German, or if the message was in reverse speech. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 12 / 47 Models Selection Models Early Selection Model 1: Donald Broadbent’s Filter Model (1958) Figure: Broadbent’s Filter Model4 4 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 13 / 47 Models Selection Models Cocktail Party Effect Figure: Cocktail Party Effect5 5 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 14 / 47 Models Selection Models Dichotic Listening Paradigms Neville Moray (1959) did a dichotic listening experiment in which his participants were instructed to shadow the message presented to one ear and to ignore the message presented to the other ear. But when Moray presented the listener’s name to the unattended ear, about a third of the participants detected it. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 15 / 47 Models Selection Models Dear Aunt Jane: Gray and Wedderburn (1960) Figure: Dichotic Listening Paradigm6 6 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 16 / 47 Models Selection Models Early Selection Model 2: Anne Treisman’s Attenuation Model (1964) Figure: Treisman’s attenuation model7 7 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 17 / 47 Models Selection Models Late Selection Models Figure: Dichotic Listening Paradigm8 8 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 18 / 47 Models Selection Models Late Selection Models: Deutsch Deutsch, 1963; Norman, 1968 Figure: Early and Late Selection Modelsl9 9 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 19 / 47 Models Selection Models Priming and Subliminal Priming Priming is a phenomenon in which previous stimuli influence how people react to subsequent stimuli. Subliminal Priming is a type of priming in which the stimuli below the threshold of perception influence how the people react to subsequent stimuli. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 20 / 47 Models Selection Models Subliminal Priming Experiment: Dehaene et al., 1998 Figure: Subliminal Priming Experiment10 10 Dehaene et al., 1998 Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 21 / 47 Models Selection Models Subliminal Messaging: Science or Myth James Vicary, an advertising expert in the late 1950s, claimed to flash short messages such as ‘Eat Popcorn’ or ‘Drink Coke’ lasting for a third of a millisecond every five seconds throughout a movie. As a result, he claimed, sales of popcorn had risen 18.1% - and Coke by 57.7% in six weeks. The parents of two teenagers who committed suicide in the mid- 1980s alleged that the rock band Judas Priest incorporated the subliminal message ‘Do it’ in one of their songs, and this message was directly responsible for the death of the two boys. There is no empirical evidence that subliminal messages can influence let alone control our behaviour (McConnell et al., 1958; Moore, 1982, 1988). Vicary later admitted to having exaggerated the influence of subliminal advertising to help his crumbling marketing company (Pratkanis, 1992). Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 22 / 47 Models Perceptual Load Theory Perceptual Load Theory of Attention: Nilli Lavie (1995) Processing Capacity, which refers to the amount of information people can handle and sets a limit on their ability to process incoming information. Perceptual Load, which is related to the difficulty of a task. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 23 / 47 Models Perceptual Load Theory Perceptual Load Theory of Attention Figure: Forster and Lavie’s (2008) experiment11 11 Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience by E. Bruce Goldstein Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 24 / 47 Models Perceptual Load Theory Perceptual Load Theory of Attention Figure: Perceptual Load Theory of Attention12 12 Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience by E. Bruce Goldstein Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 25 / 47 Models Perceptual Load Theory Perceptual Load Theory of Attention: Basic Assumptions Attentional resources are limited in capacity. Task-relevant stimuli are processed before task-irrelevant stimuli. In high-load conditions, selection occurs in the early stages of processing and in the low-load conditions, in the late stages. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 26 / 47 Visual Attention Visual Attention: Visual Search Figure: Visual Search13 13 Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience by E. Bruce Goldstein Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 27 / 47 Visual Attention Visual Attention: Reading Fixation: The maintaining of the gaze on a single location. Saccade: A rapid, simultaneous, jerky eye movement that shifts the center of gaze from one part of the visual field to another. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 28 / 47 Visual Attention Fovea Figure: Fovea Centralis14 14 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 29 / 47 Visual Attention Central and Peripheral Vision Figure: Central and Peripheral Vision15 15 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 30 / 47 Visual Attention Visual Attention: Free Viewing Figure: Saccades during free viewing16 16 Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience by E. Bruce Goldstein Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 31 / 47 Visual Attention Overt Attention Overt Attention: Attending to a particular region of the field by fixating the eye to that direction. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 32 / 47 Visual Attention Visual Attention: Scanning Based on Stimulus Salience Figure: Scanning Based on Stimulus Salience17 17 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 33 / 47 Visual Attention Visual Attention: Scanning Based on Cognitive Factors Võ and Henderson(2009) Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 34 / 47 Visual Attention Visual Attention: Scanning Based on Task Demands Figure: Scanning on Task Demands18 18 Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience by E. Bruce Goldstein Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 35 / 47 Visual Attention Attention: Bottom-up and Top-down Bottom-up: Guided by externally driven factors to stimuli that are salient because of their inherent properties relative to the background. Top-down: Guided by prior knowledge, willful plans, and current goals. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 36 / 47 Attention Networks Ventral and Dorsal Attention Networks Figure: Ventral and Dorsal Attention Networks19 19 Vossel et al., 2014 Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 37 / 47 Hemineglect Hemineglect Figure: Line Cancellation Test20 20 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 38 / 47 Hemineglect Hemineglect Figure: Letter Search Test21 21 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 39 / 47 Hemineglect Hemineglect Figure: Copying and Spontaneous Drawing22 22 Source: Internet Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 40 / 47 Covert Attention Covert Attention Overt Attention: Attending to a particular region of the field by fixating the eye to that region. Covert Attention: Attending to a region of the field that is different from that on which the eyes are fixated. Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 41 / 47 Covert Attention Covert Attention: Precueing Experiment (Posner et al., 1978) Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 42 / 47 Object Based Attention Object Based Attention Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 43 / 47 23 Figure: DividedSame-object-advantage Attention Divided 23 Source: Attention Behrmann et al., 1998 Figure: Cell-phone Experiment24 24 Strayer and Johnston (2001) Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 44 / 47 Automaticity Automaticity Automatic processing occurs at a cost of only some of a person’s cognitive resources often without (or with little) awareness without intention difficult to prevent Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 45 / 47 Automaticity Automaticity: The Stroop Effect Figure: The Stroop Effect25 25 Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience by E. Bruce Goldstein Dipanjan Ray · Attention · September 25, 2024 46 / 47 Memory 1: Short Term Memory A Guided Tour Through Seven Experiments Dipanjan Ray [email protected] Department of Psychology, Ashoka University September 27, 2024 Experiments Experiments Short-term memory Murdock 1962 Glanzer and Cunitz 1966 Miller 1956 Sperling 1960 Conrad 1964 Craik and Tulving 1975 Shepard and Metzler 1971 Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 3 / 66 Experiments Questions Short-term memory Q1. Is memory a unitary system? Q2. How Many Items Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory? Q3. In which modality STM is encoded? Q4. Is There a Third Type of Memory? Q5. Does encoding depend on amount or type of rehearsing? Q6. Does STM process visuospatial information? Q7. Can we process several tasks simultaneously in STM? Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 4 / 66 Definition What is Memory Definition 1 Memory is a behavioral change caused by an experience. Definition 2 Memory is the process involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information after the original information is no longer present. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 5 / 66 Q1. Is memory a unitary system? Murdock 1962 Murdock 1962: Free Recall Paradigm Murdock asked participants to learn a list of words that varied in length from 10 to 40 words and free recall them. Each word was presented for one to two seconds. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 7 / 66 Murdock 1962 Murdock 1962: Free Recall Paradigm Figure: Free Recall: Three Phrases1 1 Source: Foundations Of Cognitive Psychology by Fernand Gobet et al. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 8 / 66 O E U H P C K L D F J A N S I G B M F R Z Now try to recall as many of the letters as you can OEUHPCKLDFJANSIGBMFRZ Murdock 1962 Murdock 1962: Results Figure: Serial Position Curve2 2 Source: Internet. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 32 / 66 Murdock 1962 Murdock 1962: Conclusion There are at least two memory system: Long-term memory (LTM) and short-term memory (STM). The words from the end of the list went into STM which can typically hold information for about 15-30 seconds after which the information is either lost or enter into LTM by repeating it over and over. The words early in the list were put into LTM because the person has time to rehearse each word acoustically. Words in the middle of the list had been there too long to be held in STM and not long enough to be put into LTM. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 33 / 66 Glanzer and Cunitz, 1966 Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) Procedure: Similar to Murdock 1962 but with two conditions. In one condition, there was no retention interval and-participants recalled the list immediately after its presentation. In another condition, the list was recalled after a delay of 15 or 30 seconds, filled in with a backward counting task in threes. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 34 / 66 Glanzer and Cunitz, 1966 Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) Results Figure: Serial Position Curve3 3 Source: Internet. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 35 / 66 Q2. How Many Items Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory? Miller 1956 How Many Items Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory? OEUOPCKLDFLALOIKPAFREMSSAOBK PACKLOADFILLKEEPFOURMASSBOOK LISTCLADSINKLIKE HYPNOTICCANNIBALROMANTICSHEPHERD OEAOIEOEUOEOTBRNTBTHTISTHQSTNT TOBEORNOTTOBETHATISTHEQUESTION 4 4 Foundations Of Cognitive Psychology by Fernand Gobet et al. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 37 / 66 Miller 1956 The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information-Miller(1956) The cognitive system fuses together functionally related bits of information, a process termed chunking. The chunk was the underlying unit of storage in short-term memory. A chunk can be defined as ‘a collection of elements having strong associations with one another, but weak associations with elements within other chunks’ (Gobet et al’,2001, p.236). Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 38 / 66 Miller 1956 The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information-Miller(1956) Miller suggested that the capacity of STM was seven plus or minus two chunks. Later work, notably by Cowan (2001), has favored a lower estimate of capacity of three to five chunks. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 39 / 66 Miller 1956 The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information-Miller(1956) “My problem is that I have been persecuted by an integer. For seven years this number has followed me around, has intruded in my most private data, and has assaulted me from the pages of our most public journals. This number assumes a variety of disguises, being sometimes a little larger and sometimes a little smaller than usual, but never changing so much as to be unrecognizable” Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 40 / 66 Miller 1956 The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information-Miller(1956) “And finally, what about the magical number seven? What about the seven wonders of the world, the seven seas, the seven deadly sins, the seven daughters of Atlas in the Pleiades, the seven ages of man, the seven levels of hell, the seven primary colors, the seven notes of the musical scale, and the seven days of the week? What about the sevenpoint rating scale, the seven categories for absolute judgment, the seven objects in the span of attention, and the seven digits in the span of immediate memory? For the present I propose to withhold judgment. Perhaps there is something deep and profound behind all these sevens, something just calling out for us to discover it. But I suspect that it is only a pernicious, Pythagorean coincidence.” Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 41 / 66 Miller 1956 STM and LTM SHORT TERM MEMORY LONG TERM MEMORY Temporal decay (duration 15-30 seconds) Duration minutes to lifetime Limited capacity Theoretically limitless capacity Sensitive to interference Insensitive to interference Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 42 / 66 Q3. In which modality STM is encoded? Conrad 1964 Conrad 1964 Aim: Determine how short-term memory is encoded Procedure: Ps were presented with sequences of six consonants and then asked to recall the sequences. Findings: Letters with similar sounds (e.g. "P", "D", "T") proved more difficult to recall correctly than letters with different sounds (e.g. "D" "O") even though the different sounding letters looked more similar ("D" looks like "O" but sounds different; "D" doesn’t look like "T" but sounds similar) Conclusion: We encode information in STM as series of sounds, even when it is presented visually Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 44 / 66 Q4. Is There a Third Type of Memory? Sperling 1960 Sperling 1960 Sperling flashed an array of letters on the screen for 50 milliseconds (50/1000 second) and asked his participants to report as many of the letters as possible. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 46 / 66 Sperling 1960 Sperling 1960 Figure: Experiment Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 47 / 66 Sperling 1960 Sperling 1960 Figure: Result Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 48 / 66 Sperling 1960 Visual Sensory Memory: Iconic Memory Lasts for a few hundred milliseconds. Example: You wake up at night to get a drink of water and turn the kitchen light on. Almost instantly, the bulb burns out and leaves you in darkness, but you can briefly envision what the room looked like from the glimpse you were able to get. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 49 / 66 Sperling 1960 Auditory Sensory Memory: Echoic Memory Lasts for a few seconds. Example: You hear someone say something, but you don’t understand at first and say “What?” But even before the person can repeat what was said, you “hear” it in your mind. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 50 / 66 Multi-component Model of Memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi-component Model of Memory Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 51 / 66 Multi-component Model of Memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi-component Model of Memory Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 52 / 66 Multi-component Model of Memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-component Model of Memory: 1969 Version Figure: 1969 version Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 53 / 66 Multi-component Model of Memory Three questionable assumptions of Multi-component model Encoding in long-term memory depends on the amount of rehearsing in the short-term store. The mental operations in short-term memory are done only in an acoustic format. The short-term store is considered as a unit. Assuming a limited amount of resources, this implies that the resources engaged by one process are not available to another process. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 54 / 66 Q5. Does encoding depend on amount or type of rehearsing? Craik and Tulving 1975 Craik and Tulving 1975 Figure: Craik and Tulving 1975 Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 56 / 66 Craik and Tulving 1975 Levels of Processing Theory: Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972) Memory encoding depends on the depth of processing that an item receives. Shallow processing involves little attention to meaning attention is focused on physical features of stimuli. Deep processing involves close attention and elaborative rehearsal that focuses on an item’s meaning and its relationship to something else. Deep processing results in better memory than shallow processing. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 57 / 66 Q6. Does STM process visuospatial information? Shepard and Metzler 1971 Shepard and Metzler 1971 Figure: Shepard and Metzler 1971 Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 59 / 66 Shepard and Metzler 1971 Shepard and Metzler 1971 Conclusion: Information in STM is processed in a visuospatial format and the response time reflects the time used by the participants to rotate the object in their mind’s eye. Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 60 / 66 Q7. Can we process several tasks simultaneously in STM? Baddeley’s Working Memory Model Performing two tasks simultaneously Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 62 / 66 Baddeley’s Working Memory Model Working Memory: Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Working Memory: “a limited-capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning.” Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 63 / 66 Baddeley’s Working Memory Model Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) Working Memory Model Figure: Three main components Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 64 / 66 Baddeley’s Working Memory Model Baddeley’s Revised Working Memory Model Dipanjan Ray · Short Term Memory · September 27, 2024 65 / 66 Thank You for Your Attention! Memory 2: Long Term Memory As Taught by Mr Henry Molaison Dipanjan Ray [email protected] Department of Psychology, Ashoka University October 1, 2024 Definition What is Memory Definition 1 Memory is a behavioral change caused by an experience. Definition 2 Memory is the process involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information after the original information is no longer present. Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 2 / 28 Definition Encoding and Retrieval Encoding The process of acquiring information and transferring it to LTM Retrieval Bringing information into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 3 / 28 H.M Henry Gustav Molaison (February 26, 1926 – December 2, 2008) A childhood bicycle accident Intractable epilepsy In 1953, when he was 27, bilateral resection of MTL by by neurosurgeon, W.B. Scoville Partial control of seizures, development of severe amnesia Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 4 / 28 H.M Henry Gustav Molaison (February 26, 1926 – December 2, 2008) Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 5 / 28 H.M Hippocampus Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 6 / 28 H.M Hippocampus Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 7 / 28 H.M Brenda Milner and Suzanne Corkin Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 8 / 28 H.M Dr. BRENDA MILNER (McGill University) : When you’re not at MIT, what do you do during a typical day? H.M. (Patient): See, that’s what I don’t - I don’t remember things. Dr. MILNER: Uh-huh. Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 9 / 28 H.M Amnesia Amnesia refers to the loss of memories, such as facts, and experiences. Anterograde amnesia refers to an impaired capacity for new learning. Retrograde amnesia refers to the loss of information that was acquired before the onset of amnesia Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 10 / 28 H.M Dr. MILNER: Who is the president of the United States now? H.M.: That I don’t - I couldn’t tell you. I don’t remember exactly at all. Dr. MILNER: Is it a man or a woman? H.M.: I think it’s a man. Dr. MILNER: His initials are G.B. Does that help? H.M.: No, it doesn’t help. Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 11 / 28 H.M Dr. MILNER: Do you know what you did yesterday? H.M.: No, I don’t. Dr. MILNER: How about this morning? H.M.: I don’t even remember that. Dr. MILNER: Could you tell me what you had for lunch today? H.M.: I don’t know, to tell you the truth.. Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 12 / 28 H.M Episodic and Semantic Memory Episodic memory is the memory of specific events, situations, and experiences. Semantic memory is the general knowledge about the world and includes facts, concepts, and ideas. Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 13 / 28 H.M Autobiographical Memory Autobiographical memory consists of a person’s personal history and contributes to building a feeling of identity and continuity. Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 14 / 28 H.M Interaction between Episodic and Semantic Memory Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 15 / 28 H.M Henry Gustav Molaison A severe form of anterograde amnesia and a temporally graded retrograde amnesia Absence of any general intellectual loss or perceptual disorders or personality disorder Could retrieve information about events that took place long ago Working memory was intact Procedural memory was not affected Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 16 / 28 H.M Dr. MILNER: What happened in 1929? H.M.: The stock market crashed. Dr. MILNER: It sure did. Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024 17 / 28 H.M Consolidation Consolidation: The process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption. Synaptic consolidation, which takes place over minutes or hours, involves structural changes at synapses. Systems consolidation, which takes place over months or even years, involves the gradual reorganization of neural circuits within the brain. Dipanjan Ray · Long Term Memory · October 1, 2024

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