CMU Introduction to Academic Research Unit 2 PDF

INTRODUCTION TO ACADEMIC RESEARCH UNIT 2- THE NATURE OF Dr. O. Davis ENQUIRY  SCIENTIFIC THEORY AND RESEARCH A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is based on a body of evidence, gather...

INTRODUCTION TO ACADEMIC RESEARCH UNIT 2- THE NATURE OF Dr. O. Davis ENQUIRY  SCIENTIFIC THEORY AND RESEARCH A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is based on a body of evidence, gathered through observation and experimentation. Theories are not guesses or hypotheses; they are comprehensive frameworks that explain phenomena and are supported by large amounts of data.  SCIENTIFIC THEORY AND RESEARCH Scientific research is a systematic and methodical investigation into a particular phenomenon to generate new knowledge or validate existing knowledge. The purpose of scientific research is to develop or refine theories, often involving the formulation and testing of hypotheses.  SCIENTIFIC THEORY AND RESEARCH The scientific research method is characterized by:  Empiricism - based on observable phenomenon  Objectivity - free from emotion, bias, personal value or judgement  Accuracy - exactness in all areas BASIC VERSUS APPLIED RESEARCH Basic research Applied research Advances fundamental  Policy-oriented knowledge  Addresses a specific concern or problem Focuses on refuting or  Theory less central supporting theories  Mostly performed by government Source of most new ideas, officials, think-tanks, educational theories and methods institutions, private agencies, etc.  Mostly consumed by practitioners like Mostly performed and lawyers, social workers, teachers, etc. consumed by academics  Has immediate practical use but often Often lacks practical specific to one situation so prone to experience in the short misinterpretation term  Is frequently descriptive But provides the underlying foundation of social policy 5  Methodology Used Quantitative or qualitative?  Quantitative: collects data in the form of figures  Qualitative: collects data in the form of words or pictures Primary or secondary?  Primary: collects and uses original data  Secondary: use of existing data to study different problems 6  SCIENTIFIC THEORY AND RESEARCH The scientific research method is characterized by:  Empiricism - based on observable phenomenon  Objectivity - free from emotion, bias, personal value or judgement  Accuracy - exactness in all areas  RESEARCH PARADIGMS A paradigm is a framework of beliefs, values and methods one uses to make sense of the world.  Paradigms shape how we see the world – our worldview.  They inform our basic beliefs about theory and research and influence the way our studies are designed, how we collect and analyze our data and how we present our findings.  RESEARCH PARADIGMS A research paradigm is made up of:  Ontology – What is the nature or essence of social reality? Is it subjective and multiple as seen by participants or is there one fixed reality?  Epistemology – What is the nature of knowing and how is knowledge constructed? What is the relationship between researcher and researched?  Methodology – What is the process of research? How can knowledge be acquired and disseminated? Is the research process inductive or deductive? EPISTEMOLOGY What is epistemology? The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, its presuppositions and foundations, and its extent and validity. Positivism- A doctrine contending that sense perceptions are the only admissible basis of human knowledge and precise thought. Constructivist epistemology is a branch in philosophy of science maintaining that natural science consists of mental constructs that are constructed with the aim to explain sensory experience (or measurements) of natural world. 10 ETHICAL AND SOCIAL CONDUCT IN RESEARCH Scientific research must adhere to ethical guidelines, such as ensuring honesty in reporting data, protecting subjects (in human research), avoiding conflicts of interest, and acknowledging contributions of others. Ethical principles are vital to the integrity of research and protect the rights and well-being of participants, while also maintaining the trust and respect of the public. RESEARCH ETHICS Ethics is typically associated with morality – both words concern matters of right and wrong (Babbie, 2010). Some important ethical agreements in social research: ① Minimizing risk of harm ② Informed Consent ③ Anonymity and confidentiality ④ Avoiding Deceptive Practices ⑤ Voluntary Participation 12 RESEARCH ETHICS Minimizing risk of harm Some studies can potentially harm participants. Consequently risks should be minimized. Potential harm can include: Pain or physical danger. Emotional arousal or stress Observation or release of findings can cause embarrassment or social distress. Observation can involve misinformation or deception. Participant observation techniques should be used cautiously. 13 RESEARCH ETHICS Minimizing risk of harm The principle of beneficence refers to the obligation of researchers to minimize harm and maximize benefits for research participants. Non-maleficence focuses on the imperative to do no harm. 14 RESEARCH ETHICS Informed Consent Participants should be given all relevant information about the research (purpose, methods, risks, benefits, etc.) and must give consent to participate. Children under 18 (consent must be obtained from parents). Involuntary clients Any participants likely to be vulnerable to coercion or undue influence. 15  COMPONENTS OF INFORMED CONSENT Accurate explanation of evaluation procedures is made. Respondent is given an explanation of risks and benefits An offer is made to answer any additional questions about the project (contact information must be included). The participant is told that he or she can withdraw at any time. 16  METHODS USED TO VERIFY CONSENT Consent forms are needed for all research- related interviews other than interviews with public officials. No consent forms are needed for brief interviews in public settings. Public behavior (observations) generally does not require consent. 17 RESEARCH ETHICS Anonymity and Confidentiality Anonymity – is achieved in a research project when neither the researchers nor the readers of the findings can identify a given response with a given respondent. When possible, data should be anonymized to protect participants' identities. 18 RESEARCH ETHICS Anonymity and Confidentiality Confidentiality – A research guarantees confidentiality when the researcher can identify a given person’s responses but promises not to do so publicly. Researchers must ensure that personal information is kept private and that participants' identities are protected. Data Protection: Researchers should use secure methods to store and handle personal data. 19 RESEARCH ETHICS Avoiding Deceptive Practices Integrity refers to the obligation of researchers to be honest and transparent in their conduct, reporting, and publication of research. Honest Reporting: Researchers should not falsify data or results. Plagiarism and the manipulation of findings to suit desired outcomes are unethical. Transparency: Full and accurate disclosure of methods, conflicts of interest, and any potential limitations of the research is essential. Replication and Verification: Researchers should conduct studies that can be verified and replicated by others. 20 RESEARCH ETHICS Voluntary Participation Participation in research must be voluntary, and individuals must be free to withdraw at any time without penalty. No Coercion: Researchers must ensure that participants are not coerced or unduly influenced to take part in the study. Withdrawal Rights: Participants should be informed that they can withdraw from the study at any point without any negative consequences. 21 CASES OF ETHICAL CONTROVERSY Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study (1974) Zimbardo Prison Experiment (1974) Laud Humphrey’s Tearoom Trade Study (1975) CASES OF ETHICAL CONTROVERSY Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study (1974) Zimbardo Prison Experiment (1974) Laud Humphrey’s Tearoom Trade Study (1975) THANK YOU