Classical Greece 2000-300 BC PDF

Classical Greece, 2000 B.C.–300 B.C. Previewing Main Ideas POWER AND AUTHORITY In the Greek city-state of Athens, a new form of government developed—democracy—in which citizens exercised power. Geography What geographic factors might have confined democracy larg...

Classical Greece, 2000 B.C.–300 B.C. Previewing Main Ideas POWER AND AUTHORITY In the Greek city-state of Athens, a new form of government developed—democracy—in which citizens exercised power. Geography What geographic factors might have confined democracy largely to Athens? CULTURAL INTERACTION Alexander the Great spread Greek culture throughout much of Asia. Greek, Egyptian, and Asian cultures then blended to create Hellenistic culture. Geography Why might the sea have been important to the spread of Greek culture? EMPIRE BUILDING Athens assumed control of a defense league and eventually built it into an empire. Later, Alexander conquered the Persian Empire and beyond to create a vast new empire of his own. Geography What geographic features might have strengthened the Macedonian desire to build an empire to the south and east? INTERNET RESOURCES Interactive Maps Go to classzone.com for: Interactive Visuals Research Links Maps Interactive Primary Sources Internet Activities Test Practice Primary Sources Current Events Chapter Quiz 120 121  What does this art tell you about Greek culture? When you think of ancient Greece, what is the first thing that comes to mind? You can learn a lot about a culture from its works of art and literature, as well as from the statements of its leaders, philosophers, and historians. Look at these Greek works of art and read the quotations. “As an oak tree falls on the hillside crushing all that lies beneath, so Theseus. He presses out the life, the brute’s savage life, and now it lies dead.” EDITH HAMILTON, “Theseus,” Mythology ▼ This plate shows Theseus, the greatest hero of Athens, killing the mythological beast the Minotaur. ▲ This stone relief panel of Democracy crowning Athens was placed in the marketplace, where citizens could see it daily. “Our constitution is called a democracy because power is in ▲ The Greeks often adorned the hands not of a minority but their public buildings with of the whole people.” graceful sculptures of gods PERICLES, an Athenian statesman and goddesses. “For we are lovers of the beautiful in our tastes.” THUCYDIDES, a historian EXAM I N I NG the ISSU ES What does the relief panel suggest about the role of democracy in Greek society? Why might the Greeks decorate pottery with a heroic scene? Why might the Greeks place graceful statues in and around their public buildings? Break into small groups and discuss what these artworks suggest about ancient Greek culture. Also discuss what the quotations tell you about the culture and its ideals. As you read about ancient Greece, think about how its culture influenced later civilizations. 122 Chapter 5  1 Cultures of the Mountains and the Sea MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES CULTURAL INTERACTION The The seeds of much of Western Mycenaean Homer roots of Greek culture are based cultural heritage were planted Trojan War epic on interaction of the Mycenaean, during this time period. Dorian myth Minoan, and Dorian cultures. SETTING THE STAGE In ancient times, Greece was not a united country. It was a collection of separate lands where Greek-speaking people lived. By 3000 B.C., the Minoans lived on the large Greek island of Crete. The Minoans created an elegant civilization that had great power in the Mediterranean world. At the same time, people from the plains along the Black Sea and Anatolia migrated and settled in mainland Greece. Geography Shapes Greek Life TAKING NOTES Categorizing Use a Ancient Greece consisted mainly of a mountainous peninsula jutting out into the chart to organize Mediterranean Sea. It also included about 2,000 islands in the Aegean information about the (ih JEE uhn) and Ionian (eye OH nee uhn) seas. Lands on the eastern edge of roots of Greek culture. the Aegean were also part of ancient Greece. (See the map on page 121.) The region’s physical geography directly shaped Greek traditions and customs. Culture Contribution Minoan Writingg System: y The Sea The sea shaped Greek civilization just as rivers shaped the ancient pottery designs civilizations of Egypt, the Fertile Crescent, India, and China. In one sense, the Mycenaean Greeks did not live on a land but around a sea. Greeks rarely had to travel more than 85 miles to reach the coastline. The Aegean Sea, the Ionian Sea, and the Dorian neighboring Black Sea were important transportation routes for the Greek peo- ple. These seaways linked most parts of Greece. As the Greeks became skilled sailors, sea travel connected Greece with other societies. Sea travel and trade were also important because Greece lacked natural resources, such as timber, precious metals, and usable farmland. The Land Rugged mountains covered about three-fourths of ancient Greece. The mountain chains ran mainly from northwest to southeast along the Balkan Peninsula. Mountains divided the land into a number of different regions. This significantly influenced Greek political life. Instead of a single government, the Greeks developed small, independent communities within each little valley and its surrounding mountains. Most Greeks gave their loyalty to these local communities. In ancient times, the uneven terrain also made land transportation difficult. Of the few roads that existed, most were little more than dirt paths. It often took travelers several days to complete a journey that might take a few hours today. Much of the land itself was stony, and only a small part of it was arable, or suitable for farming. Tiny but fertile valleys covered about one-fourth of Greece. Classical Greece 123  The small streams that watered these valleys were not suitable for large-scale irrigation projects. With so little fertile farmland or fresh water for irrigation, Greece was never able to support a large population. Historians estimate that no more than a few million people lived in ancient Greece at any given time. Even this small population could not expect the land to support a life of luxury. A desire for more living space, grassland for raising livestock, and adequate farmland may have Analyzing Causes been factors that motivated the Greeks to seek new sites for colonies. In what ways did Greece’s loca- The Climate Climate was the third important environmental influence on Greek tion by the sea and civilization. Greece has a varied climate, with temperatures averaging 48 degrees its mountainous Fahrenheit in the winter and 80 degrees Fahrenheit in the summer. In ancient times, land affect its these moderate temperatures supported an outdoor life for many Greek citizens. development? Men spent much of their leisure time at outdoor public events. They met often to discuss public issues, exchange news, and take an active part in civic life. Mycenaean Civilization Develops As Chapter 3 explained, a large wave of Indo-Europeans migrated from the Eurasian steppes to Europe, India, and Southwest Asia. Some of the people who settled on the Greek mainland around 2000 B.C. were later known as Mycenaeans. The name came from their leading city, Mycenae (my SEE nee). Mycenae was located in southern Greece on a steep, rocky ridge and surrounded by a protective wall more than 20 feet thick. The fortified city of Mycenae could withstand almost any attack. From Mycenae, a warrior-king ruled the surrounding villages and farms. Strong rulers controlled the areas around other Mycenaean cities, such as Tiryns and Athens. These kings dominated Greece from about 1600 to 1100 B.C. 42°N Black Sea Mycenaean Greece Mycenaean city Mycenaean Greece, c. 1250 B.C. Other city Trade routes Battle Troy HI TTI TE EMPI RE Lesbos A NA TOLIA GRE E C E Aegean Orchomenos Gla Euboea Sea Ionian Thebes Athens Chios Sea Samos Sicily Mycenae Tiryns Miletus Peloponnesus Pylos Rhodes 16°E Knossos Cyprus Crete GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Location Where was the center of the Mediterranean Mycenaean Civilization located? 34°N Sea 2. Movement Based on the map, how did Mycenaean traders conduct most of their trade? 0 100 Miles 24°E 0 200 Kilometers 32°E EGYPT 124  Contact with Minoans Sometime after 1500 B.C., through either trade or war, the Mycenaeans came into contact with the Minoan civilization. From their contact with the Minoans, the Mycenaeans saw the value of seaborne trade. Mycenaean traders soon sailed throughout the eastern Mediterranean, making stops at Aegean islands, coastal towns in Anatolia, and ports in Syria, Egypt, Italy, and Crete. The Minoans also influenced the Mycenaeans in other ways. The Myce- naeans adapted the Minoan writing sys- tem to the Greek language and decorated vases with Minoan designs. The Minoan- influenced culture of Mycenae formed the core of Greek religious practice, art, Recognizing politics, and literature. Indeed, Western Effects civilization has its roots in these two How did early Mediterranean civilizations. contact with the The Trojan War During the 1200s B.C., Minoans affect ▲ Greek stories Mycenaean culture? the Mycenaeans fought a ten-year war against Troy, an independent trading city tell of their army’s located in Anatolia. According to legend, a Greek army besieged and destroyed capture of the leg- Troy because a Trojan prince had kidnapped Helen, the beautiful wife of a endary city of Troy by hiding soldiers Greek king. in a hollow For many years, historians thought that the legendary stories told of the Trojan wooden horse. War were totally fictional. However, excavations conducted in northwestern Turkey during the 1870s by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann sug- gested that the stories of the Trojan War might have been based on real cities, people, and events. Further archaeological studies conducted in the 20th century support Schliemann’s findings. Although the exact nature of the Trojan War remains unclear, this attack on Troy was almost certainly one of the last Mycenaean battle campaigns. Greek Culture Declines Under the Dorians Not long after the Trojan War, Mycenaean civilization collapsed. Around 1200 B.C., sea raiders attacked and burned many Mycenaean cities. According to tradition, a new group of people, the Dorians (DAWR ee uhnz), moved into the war-torn countryside. The Dorians spoke a dialect of Greek and may have been distant relatives of the Bronze Age Greeks. The Dorians were far less advanced than the Mycenaeans. The economy collapsed and trade eventually came to a standstill soon after their arrival. Most important to historians, Greeks appear to have temporarily lost the art of writing during the Dorian Age. No written record exists from the 400-year period between 1150 and 750 B.C. As a result, little is known about this period of Greek history. Epics of Homer Lacking writing, the Greeks of this time learned about their history through the spoken word. According to tradition, the greatest storyteller was a blind man named Homer. Little is known of his personal life. Some historians believe that Homer composed his epics, narrative poems celebrating heroic deeds, sometime between 750 and 700 B.C. The Trojan War forms the backdrop for one of Homer’s great epic poems, the Iliad. Classical Greece 125  The heroes of the Iliad are warriors: the fierce Greek Achilles (uh KIHL eez) and the courageous and noble Hector of Troy. In the following dramatic excerpt, Hector’s wife begs him not to fight Achilles: PRIMARY SOURCE “My dear husband, your warlike spirit will be your death. You've no compassion for your infant child, for me, your sad wife, who before long will be your widow.... As for me, it would be better, if I'm to lose you, to be buried in the ground....” Great Hector... replied, “Wife, all this concerns me, too. But I’d be disgraced, dreadfully shamed... , if I should slink away from war, like a coward. [F]or I have learned always to be brave, to fight alongside Trojans at the front, striving to win great fame for my father, for myself.” HOMER, the Iliad (translated by Ian Johnston) Hector’s response to his wife gives insight into the Greek heroic ideal of aretē (ar uh TAY), meaning virtue and excellence. A Greek could display this ideal on the battlefield in combat or in athletic contests on the playing field. ▲ This is a Greeks Create Myths The Greeks developed a rich set of myths, or traditional marble sculpture stories, about their gods. The works of Homer and another epic, Theogony by of Polyphemus—a Hesiod, are the source of much of Greek mythology. Through the myths, the Greeks cyclops, or one- eyed monster— sought to understand the mysteries of nature and the power of human passions. who appears in Myths explained the changing of the seasons, for example. another of Greeks attributed human qualities, such as love, hate, and jealousy, to their Homer’s epics, gods. The gods quarreled and competed with each other constantly. However, the Odyssey. unlike humans, the gods lived forever. Zeus, the ruler of the gods, lived on Mount Olympus with his wife, Hera. Hera was often jealous of Zeus’ relationships with other women. Athena, goddess of wisdom, was Zeus’ daughter and his favorite child. The Greeks thought of Athena as the guardian of cities, especially of Athens, which was named in her honor. You will learn about Athens and other cities in Section 2. SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Mycenaean Trojan War Dorian Homer epic myth USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which of the cultures on your 3. What impact did nearness to 6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS How did the physical geography chart do you think contributed the sea have on the of Greece cause Greek-speaking peoples to develop the most to Greek culture? development of Greece? separate, isolated communities? Explain. 4. What aspects of culture did the 7. ANALYZING CAUSES Other than the explanation offered in Mycenaeans adopt from the the legend, why do you think the Greeks went to war Culture Contribution Minoan Minoans? with Troy? Writingg System: y pottery designs 5. Why were the epics of 8. MAKING INFERENCES The Dorian period is often called Mycenaean importance to the Greeks of Greece’s Dark Age. Why do you think this is so? the Dorian period? 9. WRITING ACTIVITY CULTURAL INTERACTION Write an Dorian expository essay explaining why the Greek epics and myths are so well known and studied in today’s society. CONNECT TO TODAY WRITING EXPLANATIONS Many names and phrases from this period of Greek history have been absorbed into the English language. Use library resources to find examples, such as Achilles heel, Homeric, and Trojan horse. Write a brief explanation of each example. 126 Chapter 5  2 Warring City-States MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES POWER AND AUTHORITY The Many political systems in today’s polis tyrant growth of city-states in Greece world mirror the varied forms of acropolis democracy led to the development of government that evolved in monarchy helot several political systems, Greece. aristocracy phalanx including democracy. oligarchy Persian Wars SETTI NG TH E STAGE During the Dorian period, Greek civilization experienced decline. However, two things changed life in Greece. First, Dorians and Mycenaeans alike began to identify less with the culture of their ancestors and more with the local area where they lived. Second, by the end of this period, the method of governing areas had changed from tribal or clan control to more formal governments—the city-states. Rule and Order in Greek City-States TAKING NOTES Following By 750 B.C., the city-state, or polis, was the fundamental political unit in ancient Chronological Order Greece. A polis was made up of a city and its surrounding countryside, which On a double time line, included numerous villages. Most city-states controlled between 50 and 500 note the important square miles of territory. They were often home to fewer than 10,000 residents. events in the development of At the agora, or marketplace, or on a fortified hilltop called an acropolis Athens and Sparta. (uh KRAHP uh lihs), citizens gathered to discuss city government. Athens Greek Political Structures Greek city-states had many different forms of government. (See the chart on page 128.) In some, a single person, called a king, Draco's Code ruled in a government called a monarchy. Others adopted an aristocracy (AR ih STAHK ruh see), a government ruled by a small group of noble, Conquest landowning families. These very rich families often gained political power after of Messenia serving in a king’s military cavalry. Later, as trade expanded, a new class of Sparta wealthy merchants and artisans emerged in some cities. When these groups became dissatisfied with aristocratic rule, they sometimes took power or shared it with the nobility. They formed an oligarchy, a government ruled by a few powerful people. Tyrants Seize Power In many city-states, repeated clashes occurred between rulers and the common people. Powerful individuals, usually nobles or other wealthy citizens, sometimes seized control of the government by appealing to the common people for support. These rulers were called tyrants. Unlike today, tyrants generally were not considered harsh and cruel. Rather, they were looked upon as leaders who would work for the interests of the ordinary people. Once in power, for example, tyrants often set up building programs to provide jobs and housing for their supporters. Classical Greece 127  Athens Builds a Limited Democracy The idea of representative government also began to take root in some city-states, particularly Athens. Like other city-states, Athens went through power struggles between rich and poor. However, Athenians avoided major political upheavals by making timely reforms. Athenian reformers moved toward democracy, rule by the people. In Athens, citizens participated directly in political decision making. Building Democracy The first step toward democracy came when a nobleman Vocabulary named Draco took power. In 621 B.C., Draco developed a legal code based on the The legal code pre- idea that all Athenians, rich and poor, were equal under the law. Draco’s code dealt pared by Draco was so harsh that the very harshly with criminals, making death the punishment for practically every word draconian has crime. It also upheld such practices as debt slavery, in which debtors worked as come to mean slaves to repay their debts. “extreme cruelty or More far-reaching democratic reforms were introduced by Solon (SO luhn), severity.” who came to power in 594 B.C. Stating that no citizen should own another citizen, Solon outlawed debt slavery. He organized all Athenian citizens into four social classes according to wealth. Only members of the top three classes could hold political office. However, all citizens, regardless of class, could participate in the Athenian assembly. Solon also introduced the legal concept that any citizen could bring charges against wrongdoers. Around 500 B.C., the Athenian leader Cleisthenes (KLYS thuh NEEZ) introduced further reforms. He broke up the power of the nobility by organizing citizens into ten groups based on where they lived rather than on their wealth. He also increased the power of the assembly by allowing all citizens to submit laws for debate and passage. Cleisthenes then created the Council of Five Hundred. This body proposed laws and counseled the assembly. Council members were chosen by lot, or at random. The reforms of Cleisthenes allowed Athenian citizens to participate in a limited democracy. However, citizenship was restricted to a relatively small number of Athenians. Only free adult male property owners born in Athens were considered citizens. Women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from citizenship and had Contrasting few rights. How is Athenian democ- Athenian Education For the most part, only the sons of wealthy families received racy different from formal education. Schooling began around the age of seven and largely prepared modern American boys to be good citizens. They studied reading, grammar, poetry, history, mathe- democracy? matics, and music. Because citizens were expected to debate issues in the assem- bly, boys also received training in logic and public speaking. And since the Greeks believed that it was important to train and develop the body, part of each day Forms of Government Monarchy Aristocracy Oligarchy Direct Democracy State ruled by a king State ruled by nobility State ruled by a small State ruled by its Rule is hereditary Rule is hereditary and group of citizens citizens Some rulers claim based on family ties, Rule is based on wealth Rule is based on divine right social rank, wealth or ability citizenship Practiced in Mycenae Social status and wealth Ruling group controls Majority rule decides vote by 2000 B.C. support rulers’ authority military Practiced in Athens by Practiced in Athens prior Practiced in Sparta by 500 B.C. about 500 B.C. to 594 B.C. SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts 1. Summarizing Which forms of government feature rule based on wealth or property ownership? 2. Clarifying In which form of government do citizens have the most power? 128 Chapter 5  A Husband’s Advice In this excerpt from The Economist, the Greek historian Xenophon describes how a husband might respond to his wife’s question about how she could remain attractive: PRIMARY SOURCE I counseled her to oversee the baking woman as she made the bread; to stand beside the housekeeper as she measured out her stores; to go on tours of inspection to see if all things were in order as they should be. For, as it seemed to me, this would at once be walking exercise and supervision. And, as an excellent gymnastic, I recommended her to knead the dough and roll the paste; to shake the coverlets and make the beds; adding, if she trained herself in exercise of this sort she would enjoy her food, grow vigorous in health, and her complexion would in very truth be lovelier. DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS The very look and aspect of the wife. 1. Making Inferences What is the husband XENOPHON, The Economist, Book 10 (Translated by suggesting in his advice to his wife? H. G. Dakyns) 2. Synthesizing How is the husband’s advice representative of Athenian attitudes toward women? was spent in athletic activities. When they got older, boys went to military school to help them prepare for another important duty of citizenship—defending Athens. Athenian girls did not attend school. Rather, they were educated at home by their mothers and other female members of the household. They learned about child-rearing, weaving cloth, preparing meals, managing the household, and other skills that helped them become good wives and mothers. Some women were able to take their education farther and learned to read and write. A few even became accomplished writers. Even so, most women had very little to do with Athenian life outside the boundaries of family and home. Sparta Builds a Military State Located in the southern part of Greece known as the Peloponnesus (PEHL uh puh NEE sus), Sparta was nearly cut off from the rest of Greece by the Gulf of Corinth. (See the map on page 121.) In outlook and values, Sparta contrasted sharply with the other city-states, Athens in particular. Instead of a democracy, Sparta built a military state. Sparta Dominates Messenians Around 725 B.C., Sparta conquered the neighboring region of Messenia and took over the land. The Messenians became helots (HEHL uhts), peasants forced to stay on the land they worked. Each year, the Spartans demanded half of the helots’ crops. In about 650 B.C., the Messenians, resentful of the Spartans’ harsh rule, revolted. The Spartans, who were outnum- bered eight to one, just barely put down the revolt. Shocked at their vulnerability, they dedicated themselves to making Sparta a strong city-state. Classical Greece 129  Festivals and Sports The ancient Greeks believed that strong healthy citizens helped strengthen the city-state. They often included sporting events in the festivals they held to honor their gods. The most famous sports festival was the Olympic games, held every four years. Records of Olympics winners started in 776 B.C. At first, the festival lasted only one day and had only one contest, a race called the stade. Later, many other events were added, including a long-distance race, wrestling, the long jump, the javelin, and the discus throw. The Olympics was expanded to five days in 472 B.C. Women’s Sports ▲ Women had their own sports festival in ancient Greece. It was the festival devoted to Hera, the wife of Zeus. Like the Olympics, the Hera festival was held every four years. One of the main events was a foot race for unmarried women. Discus Thrower ▲ Ancient athletes, such as this discus thrower, would be considered amateurs today because they received no pay for competing. However, they trained rigorously for months at a time. Victors were given lavish gifts and were hailed as heroes. Many athletes competed full-time. ▲ Mount Olympus The ancient Olympics honored Zeus, the father of all Greek gods and goddesses. According to legend, Zeus hurled a thunderbolt from Mount Olympus at a spot in rural Greece. An altar for Zeus was built on that spot. Eventually, many buildings were erected around the altar. This area was called Olympia and became the site for the Olympic games. SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Visual Sources 1. Evaluating Decisions Do you think it was a good decision for the Greeks to add more sporting events to the Olympics? Explain. 2. Comparing and Contrasting How are today’s Olympics similar to and different from the Olympics in ancient Greece? 130 Chapter 5  Sparta’s Government and Society Spartan government had several branches. An assembly, which was composed of all Spartan citizens, elected officials and voted on major issues. The Council of Elders, made up of 30 older citizens, proposed laws on which the assembly voted. Five elected officials carried out the laws passed by the assembly. These men also controlled education and prosecuted court cases. In addition, two kings ruled over Sparta’s military forces. The Spartan social order consisted of several groups. The first were citizens descended from the original inhabitants of the region. This group included the rul- ing families who owned the land. A second group, noncitizens who were free, worked in commerce and industry. The helots, at the bottom of Spartan society, were little better than slaves. They worked in the fields or as house servants. Spartan Daily Life From around 600 until 371 B.C., Sparta had the most powerful army in Greece. However, the Spartan people paid a high price for their military supremacy. All forms of individual expression were discouraged. As a result, Spartans did not value the arts, literature, or other artistic and intellectual pursuits. Comparing Spartans valued duty, strength, and discipline over freedom, individuality, beauty, How would you and learning. compare the ideals Since men were expected to serve in the army until the age of 60, their daily life of Spartan and centered on military training. Boys left home when they were 7 and moved into Athenian societies? army barracks, where they stayed until they reached the age of 30. They spent their days marching, exercising, and fighting. They undertook these activities in all weathers, wearing only light tunics and no shoes. At night, they slept without blankets on hard benches. Their daily diet consisted of little more than a bowl of coarse black porridge. Those who were not satisfied were encouraged to steal food. Such training produced tough, resourceful soldiers. Spartan girls also led hardy lives. They received some military training, and they also ran, wrestled, and played sports. Like boys, girls were taught to put service to Sparta above everything—even love of family. A legend says that Spartan women told husbands and sons going to war to “come back with your shield or on it.” As adults, Spartan women had considerable freedom, especially in running the family estates when their husbands were on active military service. Such freedom sur- prised men from other Greek city-states. This was particularly true of Athens, where women were expected to remain out of sight and quietly raise children. The Persian Wars Danger of a helot revolt led Sparta to become a military state. Struggles between rich and poor led Athens to become a democracy. The greatest danger of all— invasion by Persian armies—moved Sparta and Athens alike to their greatest glory. A New Kind of Army Emerges During the Dorian Age, only the rich could afford bronze spears, shields, breastplates, and chariots. Thus, only the rich served in armies. Iron later replaced bronze in the manufacture of weapons. Harder than bronze, iron was more common and therefore cheaper. Soon, ordinary citizens could afford to arm and defend themselves. The shift from bronze to iron weapons made possible a new kind of army composed not only of the rich but also of mer- chants, artisans, and small landowners. The foot soldiers of this army, called hoplites, stood side by side, each holding a spear in one hand and a shield in the other. This fearsome formation, or phalanx (FAY LANGKS), became the most powerful fighting force in the ancient world. Battle at Marathon The Persian Wars, between Greece and the Persian Empire, began in Ionia on the coast of Anatolia. (See the map on page 132.) Greeks had long been settled there, but around 546 B.C., the Persians conquered the area. When Classical Greece 131  Ionian Greeks revolted, Athens sent ships and soldiers to their aid. The Persian king Darius the Great defeated the rebels and then vowed to destroy Athens in revenge. In 490 B.C., a Persian fleet carried 25,000 men across the Aegean Sea and landed northeast of Athens on a plain called Marathon. There, 10,000 Athenians, neatly arranged in phalanxes, waited for them. Vastly outnumbered, the Greek soldiers charged. The Persians, who wore light armor and lacked training in this kind of land combat, were no match for the disciplined Greek phalanx. After several hours, the Persians fled the battlefield. The Persians lost more than 6,000 men. In contrast, Athenian casualties numbered fewer than 200. Pheidippides Brings News Though the Athenians won the battle, their city now stood defenseless. According to tradition, army leaders chose a young runner named Pheidippides (fy DIP uh DEEZ) to race back to Athens. He brought news of the Persian defeat so that Athenians would not give up the city without a fight. Dashing the 26 miles from Marathon to Athens, Pheidippides delivered his message, “Rejoice, we conquer.” He then collapsed and died. Moving rapidly from Marathon, the Greek army arrived in Athens not long after. When the Persians sailed into the harbor, they found the city heavily defended. They quickly put to sea in retreat. Thermopylae and Salamis Ten years later, in 480 B.C., Darius the Great’s son and successor, Xerxes (ZURK seez), assembled an enormous invasion force to crush Athens. The Greeks were badly divided. Some city-states agreed to fight the Persians. Others thought it wiser to let Xerxes destroy Athens and return home. Some Greeks even fought on the Persian The Persian Wars, side. Consequently, Xerxes’ army met 490–479 B.C. no resistance as it marched down the eastern coast of Greece. Persian campaign, 490 B.C. Persian campaign, 480 B.C. When Xerxes came to a narrow Persian victory m o u n t a i n p a s s a t T h e r m o py l a e Greek victory (thur MAHP uh lee), 7,000 Greeks, Indecisive battle Mt. Olympus Greek alliance including 300 Spartans, blocked his Troy way. Xerxes assumed that his troops Aege an Persian empire and allies Neutral Greek states would easily push the Greeks aside. Sea 28°E Artemisium (480) PERS I A N However, he underestimated their fight- Thermopylae (480) IONIA Sardis EM P I R E ing ability. The Greeks stopped the Plataea (479) 38°N Ephesus Persian advance for three days. Only a Athens Mycale (479) traitor’s informing the Persians about a G REECE Miletus (494) secret path around the pass ended their Sparta Eretria brave stand. Fearing defeat, the Spartans (490) Thebes held the Persians back while the other Marathon (490) Greek forces retreated. The Spartans’ Mediterranean 38°N Salamis Athens valiant sacrifice—all were killed— Knossos (480) Sea Crete made a great impression on all Greeks. Saronic Meanwhile, the Athenians debated 0 100 Miles Gulf how best to defend their city. 0 25 Miles 0 200 Kilometers Themistocles, an Athenian leader, con- 24°E 34°N 0 100 Kilometers vinced them to evacuate the city and 24°E fight at sea. They positioned their fleet GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Movement By what routes did the Persians choose to in a narrow channel near the island of attack Greece? Explain why. Salamis (SAL uh mihs), a few miles 2. Location Where did most of the battles of the Persian southwest of Athens. After setting fire Wars occur? How might their citizens have been affected? to Athens, Xerxes sent his warships to 132 Chapter 5  block both ends of the channel. However, the channel was very narrow, and the Persian ships had difficulty turning. Smaller Greek ships armed with battering rams attacked, puncturing the hulls of many Persian warships. Xerxes watched in horror as more than one-third of his fleet sank. He faced another defeat in 479 B.C., when the Greeks crushed the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea (pluh TEE uh). After this major setback, the Persians were always on the defensive. The following year, several Greek city-states formed an alliance called the Delian (DEE lee uhn) League. (The alliance took its name from Delos, the island in the Aegean Sea where it had its headquarters.) League members contin- ued to press the war against the Persians for several more years. In time, they drove the Persians from the territories Modern Marathons surrounding Greece and ended the threat of future attacks. Pheidippides’ heroic act in the Consequences of the Persian Wars With the Persian Persian Wars inspired officials at the threat ended, all the Greek city-states felt a new sense of first modern Olympic Games—held in Athens in 1896—to add a 26-mile confidence and freedom. Athens, in particular, basked in the race to their competition. The course glory of the Persian defeat. During the 470s, Athens of the race ran from Marathon to the emerged as the leader of the Delian League, which had Olympic Stadium in Athens. grown to some 200 city-states. Soon thereafter, Athens Today, most of the world’s major began to use its power to control the other league members. cities stage marathons every year. It moved the league headquarters to Athens, and used mili- Many, like the one held in Boston, attract wheelchair competitors. Recognizing tary force against members that challenged its authority. In Effects time, these city-states became little more than provinces of How did the a vast Athenian empire. The prestige of victory over the Persian Wars affect the Greek people, Persians and the wealth of the Athenian empire set the stage INTERNET ACTIVITY Create an for a dazzling burst of creativity in Athens. The city was illustrated history of the marathon. Go especially the to classzone.com for your research. Athenians? entering its brief golden age. SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. polis acropolis monarchy aristocracy oligarchy tyrant democracy helot phalanx Persian Wars USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which of the events on your 3. How does an aristocracy differ 6. CONTRASTING How was living in Athens different from time line do you think was the from an oligarchy? living in Sparta? most important for life today? 4. What contributions did Solon 7. MAKING INFERENCES The introduction of cheap iron Explain. and Cleisthenes make to the weapons meant that ordinary Greek citizens could arm Athens development of Athenian themselves. How might the ability to own weapons Draco's democracy? change the outlook of ordinary citizens? Code 5. How did Athens benefit from 8. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why were the Spartan soldiers victory in the Persian Wars? willing to sacrifice themselves at Thermopylae? Conquest 9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Write a brief of Messenia political monologue about democracy from an Athenian Sparta slave’s point of view. INTERNET ACTIVITY New England town meetings are similar to the kind of democracy INTERNET KEYWORD practiced in Ancient Greece. Use the Internet to find information on the town meeting town meeting. Present your findings to the class in a brief oral report. Classical Greece 133  3 Democracy and Greece’s Golden Age MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES CULTURAL INTERACTION At its height, Greece set lasting direct Peloponnesian War Democratic principles and standards in art, politics, democracy philosopher classical culture flourished literature, and philosophy that classical art Socrates during Greece’s golden age. are still influential today. tragedy Plato comedy Aristotle SETTING THE STAGE For close to 50 years (from 477 to 431 B.C.), Athens experienced a growth in intellectual and artistic learning. This period is often called the Golden Age of Athens. During this golden age, drama, sculpture, poetry, philosophy, architecture, and science all reached new heights. The artis- tic and literary legacies of the time continue to inspire and instruct people around the world. TAKING NOTES Pericles’ Plan for Athens Recognizing Effects Use a web diagram to A wise and able statesman named Pericles led Athens during much of its golden organize information age. Honest and fair, Pericles held onto popular support for 32 years. He was a about Pericles‘ goals skillful politician, an inspiring speaker, and a respected general. He so dominated for Athens. the life of Athens from 461 to 429 B.C. that this period often is called the Age of Pericles. He had three goals: (1) to strengthen Athenian democracy, (2) to hold Pericles' Goals and strengthen the empire, and (3) to glorify Athens. Stronger Democracy To strengthen democracy, Pericles increased the number of public officials who were paid salaries. Earlier in Athens, most positions in public office were unpaid. Thus, only wealthier Athenian citizens could afford to Athenian and United States Democracy Athenian Democracy Both U.S. Democracy Citizens: male; 18 years old; Political power Citizens: born in United born of citizen parents exercised by citizens States or completed Laws voted on and Three branches of citizenship process proposed directly by government Representatives elected to assembly of all citizens Legislative branch propose and vote on laws Leader chosen by lot passes laws Elected president Executive branch composed Executive branch Executive branch made up of of a council of 500 men carries out laws elected and appointed officials Juries varied in size Judicial branch Juries composed of 12 jurors No attorneys; no appeals; conducts trials Defendants and plaintiffs have one-day trials with paid jurors attorneys; long appeals process 134 Chapter 5  hold public office. Now even the poorest citizen could serve if elected or chosen by lot. Consequently, Athens had more citizens engaged in self-government than any other city-state in Greece. This reform made Athens one of the most democratic governments in history. The introduction of direct democracy, a form of government in which citizens rule directly and not through representatives, was an important legacy of Periclean Athens. Few other city-states practiced this style of government. In Athens, male citizens who served in the assembly established all the important government poli- cies that affected the polis. In a speech honoring the Athenian war dead, Pericles expressed his great pride in Athenian democracy: PRIMARY SOURCE Analyzing Our constitution is called a democracy because power is in the hands not of a minority Primary Sources but of the whole people. When it is a question of settling private disputes, everyone is How accurate equal before the law; when it is a question of putting one person before another in do you consider positions of public responsibility, what counts is not membership in a particular class, Pericles’ statement but the actual ability which the man possesses. No one, so long as he has it in him to that Athenian be of service to the state, is kept in political obscurity because of poverty. democracy was in PERICLES, “The Funeral Oration,” from Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War the hands of “the whole people“? Athenian Empire After the defeat of the Persians, Athens helped organize the Delian League. In time, Athens took over leadership of the league and dominated all the city- states in it. Pericles used the money from the league’s treas- ury to make the Athenian navy the strongest in the Mediterranean. A strong navy was important because it helped Athens strengthen the safety of its empire. Prosperity depended on gaining access to the surrounding waterways. Athens needed overseas trade to obtain supplies of grain and other raw materials. Athenian military might allowed Pericles to treat other members of the Delian League as part of the empire. Some cities in the Peloponnesus, however, resisted Athens and formed their own alliances. As you will read later in this section, Sparta in particular was at odds with Athens. Pericles 495–429 B.C. Pericles came from a rich and high- Glorifying Athens Pericles also used money from the ranking noble family. His aristocratic Delian League to beautify Athens. Without the league’s father had led the Athenian assembly approval, he persuaded the Athenian assembly to vote huge and fought at the Battle of Salamis in sums of the league’s money to buy gold, ivory, and marble. the Persian Wars. His mother was the Still more money went to pay the artists, architects, and niece of Cleisthenes, the Athenian workers who used these materials. noble who had introduced important democratic reforms. Pericles was well known for his Glorious Art and Architecture political achievements as leader of Pericles’ goal was to have the greatest Greek artists and Athens. Pericles the man, however, was harder to know. One historian wrote: architects create magnificent sculptures and buildings to “[He] no doubt, was a lonely man.... glorify Athens. At the center of his plan was one of He had no friend... [and] he only architecture’s noblest works—the Parthenon. went out [of his home] for official Architecture and Sculpture The Parthenon, a masterpiece business.” of architectural design and craftsmanship, was not unique in style. Rather, Greek architects constructed the 23,000- RESEARCH LINKS For more on square-foot building in the traditional style that had been Pericles, go to classzone.com used to create Greek temples for 200 years. This temple, Classical Greece 135  built to honor Athena, the goddess of wisdom and the protector of Athens, con- tained examples of Greek art that set standards for future generations of artists around the world. Pericles entrusted much of the work on the Parthenon to the sculptor Phidias (FIDH ee uhs). Within the temple, Phidias crafted a giant statue of Athena that not only contained such precious materials as gold and ivory, but also stood over 30 feet tall. Phidias and other sculptors during this golden age aimed to create figures that were graceful, strong, and perfectly formed. Their faces showed neither joy nor anger, only serenity. Greek sculptors also tried to capture the grace of the idealized human body in motion. They wanted to portray ideal beauty, not realism. Their val- ues of harmony, order, balance, and proportion became the standard of what is called classical art. Drama and History ▼ This poster The Greeks invented drama as an art form and built the first theaters in the West. promotes an 1898 Theatrical productions in Athens were both an expression of civic pride and a trib- production of Euripides’ Medea, ute to the gods. As part of their civic duty, wealthy citizens bore the cost of pro- starring the great ducing the plays. Actors used colorful costumes, masks, and sets to dramatize French actress stories. The plays were about leadership, justice, and the duties owed to the gods. Sarah Bernhardt. They often included a chorus that danced, sang, and recited poetry. Tragedy and Comedy The Greeks wrote two kinds of drama—tragedy and comedy. A tragedy was a serious drama about common themes such as love, hate, war, or betrayal. These dramas featured a main character, or tragic hero. The hero usually was an important person and often gifted with extraordinary abilities. A tragic flaw usually caused the hero’s downfall. Often this flaw was hubris, or excessive pride. In ancient times, Greece had three notable dramatists who wrote tragedies. Aeschylus (EHS kuh luhs) wrote more than 80 plays. His most famous work is the trilogy—a three-play series—Oresteia (ohr res TEE uh). It is based on the family of Agamemnon, the Mycenaean king who commanded the Greeks at Troy. The plays examine the idea of justice. Sophocles (SAHF uh kleez) wrote more than 100 plays, including the tragedies Oedipus the King and Antigone. Euripides (yoo RIP uh DEEZ), author of the play Medea, often featured strong women in his works. In contrast to Greek tragedies, a comedy contained scenes filled with slapstick situations and crude humor. Playwrights often made fun of politics and respected people and ideas of the time. Aristophanes (AR ih STAHF uh neez) wrote the first great comedies for the stage, including The Birds and Lysistrata. Lysistrata portrayed the women of Athens forcing their husbands to end the Peloponnesian War. The fact that Athenians could listen to criticism of themselves showed the freedom and Contrasting openness of public discussion that existed in democratic Athens. How did tragedy differ from History As you learned earlier in this chapter, there are no written records comedy? from the Dorian period. The epic poems of Homer recount stories, but are not accurate recordings of what took place. Herodotus, a Greek who lived in Athens for a time, pioneered the accurate reporting of events. His book on the Persian Wars is considered the first work of history. However, the greatest historian of the classical age was the Athenian Thucydides (thoo SID ih DEEZ). He believed that certain types of events and political situations recur over time. Studying those events and situations, he felt, would aid in understanding the present. The approaches Thucydides used in his work still guide historians today. 136 Chapter 5  Athenians and Spartans Go to War As Athens grew in wealth, prestige, and power, other city-states began to view it with hostility. Ill will was especially strong between Sparta and Athens. Many peo- ple thought that war between the two was inevitable. Instead of trying to avoid con- flict, leaders in Athens and Sparta pressed for a war to begin, as both groups of leaders believed their own city had the advantage. Eventually, Sparta declared war on Athens in 431 B.C. Peloponnesian War When the Peloponnesian War between the two city-states began, Athens had the stronger navy. Sparta had the stronger army, and its location inland meant that it could not easily be attacked by sea. Pericles’ strategy was to Analyzing Motives avoid land battles with the Spartan army and wait for an opportunity to strike What might Sparta and its allies from the sea. have been Pericles’ Eventually, the Spartans marched into Athenian territory. They swept over the goals in the countryside, burning the Athenian food supply. Pericles responded by bringing res- Peloponnesian War? idents from the surrounding region inside the city walls. The city was safe from hunger as long as ships could sail into port with supplies from Athenian colonies and foreign states. In the second year of the war, however, disaster struck Athens. A frightful plague swept through the city, killing perhaps one-third of the population, including Pericles. Although weakened, Athens continued to fight for several years. Then, in 421 B.C., the two sides, worn down by the war, signed a truce. Sparta Gains Victory The peace did not last long. In 415 B.C., the Athenians sent a huge fleet carrying more than 20,000 soldiers to the island of Sicily. Their plan was to destroy the city-state of Syracuse, one of Sparta’s wealthiest allies. The expedition ended with a crushing defeat in 413 B.C. In his study of the Pelopon- nesian War, Thucydides recalled: “[The Athenians] were destroyed with a total 42°N 16°E 24°E Black Sea Peloponnesian War, 431–404 B.C. THRACE Byzantium Adriatic MACEDONIA Sea Amphipolis (422 B.C.) Cyzicus (410 B.C.) Aegospotami (405 B.C.) Spartalos (429 B.C.) Cynossema (411 B.C.) PERSIAN EMPIRE Aegean Arginusae Islands (406 B.C.) Ionian Sea Sea GREECE IONIA Thebes Delium (424 B.C.) Athenian victory Ephesus Spartan victory Athens Notium (407 B.C.) Athens and allies Sicily Sparta and allies Corinth Miletus Neutral states Mantinea (418 B.C.) Syracuse (413 B.C.) Sparta Sphacteria (425 B.C.) Mediterranean Sea 0 100 Miles GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 0 200 Kilometers 1. Location Where were most of the allies of Athens located? 2. Movement Why was the sea important to Athens during the Peloponnesian War? Crete 137  destruction—their fleet, their army—there was nothing that was not destroyed, and few out of many returned home.” Somehow, a terribly weakened Athens fended off Spartan attacks for another nine years. Finally, in 404 B.C., the Athenians and their allies surrendered. Athens had lost its empire, power, and wealth. Philosophers Search for Truth After the war, many Athenians lost confidence in democratic government and began to question their values. In this time of uncertainty, several great thinkers appeared. They were determined to seek the truth, no matter where the search led them. The Greeks called such thinkers philosophers, meaning “lovers of wisdom.” These Greek thinkers based their philosophy on the following two assumptions: The universe (land, sky, and sea) is put together in an orderly way, and subject to absolute and unchanging laws. People can understand these laws through logic and reason. One group of philosophers, the Sophists, questioned people’s unexamined beliefs and ideas about justice and other traditional values. One of the most famous Sophists was Protagoras, who questioned the existence of the traditional Greek gods. He also argued that there was no universal standard of truth, saying “Man Making [the individual] is the measure of all things.” These were radical and dangerous Inferences ideas to many Athenians. Why would philosophers start Socrates One critic of the Sophists was Socrates (SAHK ruh TEEZ). Unlike the questioning tradi- Sophists, he believed that absolute standards did exist for truth and justice. However, tional beliefs at this he encouraged Greeks to go farther and question themselves and their moral charac- particular time in ter. Historians believe that it was Socrates who once said, “The unexamined life is not Athenian history? worth living.” Socrates was admired by many who understood his ideas. However, others were puzzled by this man’s viewpoints. In 399 B.C., when Socrates was about 70 years old, he was brought to trial for “corrupting the youth of Athens” and “neglecting the city’s gods.” In his own ▼ Surrounded by defense, Socrates said that his teachings were good for Athens because they forced supporters, Socrates prepares people to think about their values and actions. The jury disagreed and condemned to drink poison. him to death. He died by drinking hemlock, a slow-acting poison. Plato A student of Socrates, Plato (PLAY toh), was in his late 20s when his teacher died. Later, Plato wrote down the conversations of Socrates “as a means of philosophi- cal investigation.” Sometime in the 370s B.C., Plato wrote his most famous work, The Republic. In it, he set forth his vision of a perfectly governed society. It was not a democracy. In his ideal society, all citizens would fall naturally into three groups: farmers and artisans, warriors, and the ruling class. The person with the greatest insight and intellect from the ruling class would be chosen philosopher-king. Plato’s writings dominated philosophic thought in Europe for nearly 1,500 138 Chapter 5  Socrates Plato Aristotle 470–399 B.C. 427–347 B.C. 384–322 B.C. Socrates Born into a Aristotle, the son encouraged his wealthy Athenian of a physician, students to family, Plato had was one of the examine their careers as a brightest students beliefs. He asked wrestler and at Plato’s them a series of a poet before he Academy. He leading became a came there as a questions to show that people hold philosopher. After Socrates, his teacher, young man and stayed for 20 years until many contradictory opinions. This died, Plato left Greece. He later returned Plato’s death. In 335 B.C., Aristotle opened question-and-answer approach to to Athens and founded a school called his own school in Athens called the teaching is known as the Socratic the Academy in 387 B.C. The school Lyceum. The school eventually rivaled the method. Socrates devoted his life to lasted for approximately 900 years. It Academy. Aristotle once argued, “He who gaining self-knowledge and once said, was Plato who once stated, “Philosophy studies how things originated... will “There is only one good, knowledge, begins in wonder.” achieve the clearest view of them.” and one evil, ignorance.” years. His only rivals in importance were his teacher, Socrates, and his own pupil, Aristotle (AR ih STAHT uhl). Aristotle The philosopher Aristotle questioned the nature of the world and of human belief, thought, and knowledge. Aristotle came close to summarizing all the knowledge up to his time. He invented a method for arguing according to rules of logic. He later applied his method to problems in the fields of psychology, physics, and biology. His work provides the basis of the scientific method used today. One of Aristotle’s most famous pupils was Alexander, son of King Philip II of Macedonia. Around 343 B.C., Aristotle accepted the king’s invitation to tutor the 13-year-old prince. Alexander’s status as a student abruptly ended three years later, when his father called him back to Macedonia. You will learn more about Alexander in Section 4. SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. direct democracy classical art tragedy comedy Peloponnesian War philosopher Socrates Plato Aristotle USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which of Pericles’ goals do 3. What steps did Pericles take to 6. MAKING INFERENCES How does the concept of hubris you think had the greatest strengthen democracy in from Greek tragedy apply to the Peloponnesian War? impact on the modern Athens? 7. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Was the rule of Pericles a world? Explain your choice. 4. What were the battle strategies “golden age” for Athens? Explain. of Athens and Sparta in the 8. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Do you agree Peloponnesian War? with Socrates that there are absolute standards for truth Pericles' Goals 5. Why do you think some and justice? Why or why not? Athenians found the ideas of 9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Write a Socrates so disturbing? two- or three-paragraph essay comparing the system of direct democracy adopted by Athens and the system of government Plato described in The Republic. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING AN ILLUSTRATED REPORT One of Pericles’ goals was to create magnificent sculptures and buildings to glorify Athens. Identify local buildings or works of art that were created to honor your community, state, or the United States. Write a brief illustrated report on these buildings. Classical Greece 139 Greek Art and Architecture During ancient times, the Greeks established artistic standards that strongly influenced the later art of the Western world. The aim of Greek art was to express true ideals. To do this, the Greeks used balance, harmony, and symmetry in their art. A major branch of Greek art was sculpture. Greek sculptors did not create realistic works, but instead made statues that reflected what they considered ideal beauty. Greek art also included pottery. In Greek architecture, the most important type of building was the temple. The walled rooms in the center of the temple held sculptures of gods and goddesses and lavish gifts to these deities. RESEARCH LINKS For more on Greek art and architecture, go to classzone.com Nike of Samothrace ▲ Discovered in 1863, the Nike (or Winged Victory) of Samothrace was probably created around 203 B.C. to honor a sea battle. Through its exaggerated features and artful portrayal of flowing drapery, the Nike conveys a sense of action and triumph. Currently, it is displayed at the Louvre Museum in Paris. Red and Black Pottery ▲ Greek art also included pottery, which is known for its beauty of form and decoration. The two major types of Greek pottery are black-figure pottery (shown on the vessel) and red-figure pottery (shown on the plate). The vessel shows a scene from Greek mythology. The god Zeus, disguised as a bull, carries off a young woman named Europa. The figures on the plate demonstrate the importance of the sea and seafood in Greek culture. 140 Chapter 5 The Parthenon ▲ Built between 447 and 432 B.C., the Parthenon was a Greek temple dedicated to Athena. It serves as an excellent example of the Greek expression of harmony, symmetry, and balance. Just as Greek philosophers tried to understand the basic laws of nature, so Greek architects looked to nature for guidance. They discovered a ratio in nature that they believed created pleasing proportions and used that ratio to design the rectangles in the Parthenon. Dramatic Masks and Theater ▲ In the 6th century B.C., the Greeks became the first people to use theater for its own sake and not for religious rituals. They wrote two types of plays, comedy and tragedy. For both forms, actors wore theatrical masks that exaggerated human expressions. The plays were performed in outdoor theaters. The stage or dancing floor was partially surrounded by a semicircular seating area fitted into a hillside, such as the one shown here. 1. Drawing Conclusions How does the Parthenon display the Greek preference for symmetry and balance? See Skillbuilder Handbook, Page R11. 2. Hypothesizing On what does our culture today base its standards of beauty? Give examples to support your hypothesis. 141  4 Alexander’s Empire MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES EMPIRE BUILDING Alexander the Alexander’s empire extended Philip II Alexander Great conquered Persia and Egypt across an area that today consists Macedonia the Great and extended his empire to the of many nations and diverse Darius III