IGCSE China 1900-1989 PDF

**IGCSE China 1900-1989** This course will require you to look at Chinese history along several themes. These are Leadership Economic transformation Social transformation External (foreign) influences Civil Conflict In order to help you sift these themes from the notes, the colours below...

**IGCSE China 1900-1989** This course will require you to look at Chinese history along several themes. These are Leadership Economic transformation Social transformation External (foreign) influences Civil Conflict In order to help you sift these themes from the notes, the colours below will be used to indicate examples of these where they occur. ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- **L** **E** **S** **F** **C** ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- **1: The Fall of the Qing, Warlordism and Chaos** **1.1 China in the early twentieth century** It is important to appreciate the **geography** of China. It is the largest country in Asia. As such there is a great **diversity of terrain** - it is so large that temperatures across China vary from -30 degrees to +30 degrees. There are deserts, snowy mountains, fertile floodplains etc. China was relatively **self-contained** for many centuries before 1800 and had little trade contact with the west. This meant that there was **little influence of foreign ideas** and the perpetuation of theories which were distinct to China. There was also a **diversity of ethnicities**, the main ones being: Han, Manchu, Mongol, and Tibetan. **Contextual background to Imperial China** ------------------ ------- **Confucianism** **S** ------------------ ------- The predominant **system of thought** based on the writings of the philosopher Confucius This included the notion of the importance of **harmony and peacefulness** which called for people to obey authority and to accept the place in society into which they were born. ----------------- ------- **Imperialism** **L** ----------------- ------- China had been ruled by an **emperor** since 2000BCE. The Emperor was the very top of Chinese society and it was believed that he was there because of the '**Mandate of Heaven**' - that is, decided by fate. The Emperors had been from the Manchu region and although they had been in power for over 250 years, they were still considered 'foreigners' by the mass of the Chinese people. The Emperor in 1900 was **Guangxu** (pronounced Kwang-su) although the real power was held by his aunt, Empress Dowager **Cixi** (pronounced Chu-she). 2 --------------------- ------- **Chinese economy** **E** --------------------- ------- Unlike its huge industrial strength today, China was **overwhelmingly agricultural** in 1900 It did have some industrial development, but this was confined to a smaller number of cities. China's **main economic products** at this time were tea, silk, sugar and opium. The **port cities of China** were relatively wealthy but dominated by foreign powers. ----------------------- ------- ------- **Chinese peasantry** **E** **S** ----------------------- ------- ------- The vast majority of the population comprised peasants who farmed their landlords' lands using the same techniques they had used for centuries i.e. no technology like much of the developed world had acquired by 1900. Much of China experienced subsistence farming.  --------------- ------- **Mandarins** **S** --------------- ------- Mandarins were **government officials** who were selected by rigorous and scholarly examination based on knowledge of ancient Chinese literature. As such these roles were really only open to a **narrow social class.** They had jobs like tax collectors and army leaders and there were **many benefits** of being in this elite group who were therefore reluctant to allow any changes which might challenge this position. They were generally dressed in very formal old fashioned clothes; in the late nineteenth century the richer Chinese men wore their hair long in pigtails. They symbolised Chinese tradition. 3 ------------------- ------- **Chinese women** **S** ------------------- ------- Women were the **legal property** of their fathers and husbands. Marriages were arranged and a bride price had to be paid to the bride's family. **Footbinding**: At around age 4 a girl's feet would be bandaged with the toes under the foot and bandaged very tightly. Eventually the bones of the foot would break under pressure in order for the new shape to be achieved. This clearly limits the woman's mobility and meant it was agonising to put pressure on her feet. **It made her** **dependent on others**. It is estimated that 50 per cent of Chinese women underwent this procedure, but it was more prevalent in the wealthier classes where it was very unusual for a women not to have bound feet. The smaller the feet, the more attractive a woman was considered. -------------------------------- ------- **Foreign influence in China** **F** -------------------------------- ------- **Treaty Ports** **E L** Britain had fought the Opium Wars with the Chinese and forced them to give Britain certain rights over valuable port towns ('treaty ports') Other European states, plus Japan, did the same thing over a number of years There were **over 50 treaty ports** by 1900.  4 **Life in the Treaty Ports** Foreigners all lived in **prestigious sections** newly built for them on the edges of existing port cities. Under the terms of the treaties, foreigners were **not subject to local laws**. Treaty Port areas were **directly controlled** by foreign powers effectively removing them from the control of the Chinese government. Their areas had their own shops, restaurants, recreational facilities, parks, churches, courts, police etc. These were **off limits to the Chinese population**. Even a modestly-paid foreigner in the Treaty Ports had numerous **Chinese servants**. There was usually a **foreign warship** in the waters outside the port to protect the foreigners. Much of China's **wealth was being taken away** by foreign powers Japan had also taken Korea, while France had taken Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos All of these involvements were seen as **shameful** to the Emperor and a sign that he was losing the Mandate of Heaven. It also led to **nationalist** sentiment as Chinese students, in particular, resented the influence that foreigners had over the Chinese economy 5 **1.2 Boxer Uprising and Self-Strengthening reform** ---------------------------------------- **Background to the Boxer Uprising F** ---------------------------------------- **E L** Criticism of the Emperor around 1900 was based on ○ **Resentment of foreign powers** economica,ly exploiting Chinese through the Treaty ports system ○ 'Natural' problems caused by **drought** and **famine** in some regions ○ Rising **unemployment** In 1898, Emperor Guangxu tried to modernise government to try to stop the tide of criticism coming his way. He called this the **HUNDRED DAYS REFORM** Empress Dowager Cixi **strongly opposed** these reforms and she soon put a stop to the process Cixi aimed to **deflect criticism** away from the government. ------------------------------------------ **The 'Boxers' - rebellion 1899-1902 F** ------------------------------------------ **C L** A **secret** group who **blamed foreign exploitation** for the problems in China They were called 'Boxers' by the foreigners because the groups specialised in Chinese martial arts which were called Chinese boxing. Mostly **young, male peasants** who felt that their hardships were the fault of the foreigners Around 1899 they started attacking: ○ Foreigners ○ Missionaries ○ Chinese christians ○ Technological installations such as telegraph lines, railways 6 ------------------------------- **Responses to the Boxers F** ------------------------------- **C L** The rebellion spread to the capital **Beijing** where the German ambassador was shot. The western population in Beijing retreated into the **British legation** (which is a bit like an embassy so where the foreign diplomats were based) where they were besieged for 55 days Empress Dowager **Cixi supported** the Boxer rebellion in their attacks on the foreigners. The slogan "**Support the Qing government and exterminate the foreigners**" was encouraged The home governments of eight of the foreign groups affected - the **Eight-Nation Alliance** - sent an international force to protect their interests in China. They overpowered the Boxers easily as they had guns while the Boxers mostly had knives and fists. Additionally, many Chinese did not want to support their own government There were many Boxers **executed** in public following this. Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi **fled from Beijing** to Xian dressed as peasants which, for national leaders, was humiliating. **Explain two causes of the Boxer Uprising (8)** One cause of the Boxer Uprising was... A further cause of the Boxer Uprising was... Ensure that, for these eight mark questions, you are explaining how the cause led the the outcome. You could use the words "\...and this led to the outcome because..." to really guarantee that your answer is focused. 7 ------------------------------------ **Impact of the Boxer Uprising F** ------------------------------------ **C L** Boxers were defeated by the 8 Nation Alliance by 1902 The foreign powers ○ **demanded reparations** to the equivalent of £67,000,000 to be paid over 39 years (with which the Chinese complied) ○ **destroyed** Chinese military defences and weapon stores as far as it was possible ○ **executed** leaders who were associated with supporting the Boxers, although this did NOT include Cixi ○ **humiliated** the Chinese government by puting their own troops on patrol in Beijing for a number of years until they were confident that Guangxu and Cixi not causing problems. The Emperor's reputation, of a man powerless to protect the Chinese against foreign exploitation, had been further damaged. ----------------------------------------------------------------- ----------- **Self-strengthening and reforms following the Boxer Uprising** **S E L** ----------------------------------------------------------------- ----------- Motives for reform **Self-strengthening** had been a movement in China which had started in the 1860s It urged **technological modernisation** of China, something which the Qing monarchy had rejected for decades because they did not want a more skilled or literate population. After the Boxer rebellion, the need for China to be economically stronger seemed a better option. Self-strengthening was **based on learning from foreigners** to be able to use China's resources for the Chinese; remember there were huge areas of China where the foreigners were NOT involved and it had been being developed in small ways since the 1860s. Cixi believed that this was now the best option to **save the Qing dynasty** and put in place a number of reforms. The Qing also needed more **wealth** to pay the reparations This might also enable a **better armed China,** at some point, to resist foreign exploitation. 8 **The New Policies:** **Political reforms** A new focus on improving the **elites in the civil service** ○ Scholarships for students to study overseas ○ Removal the archaic examination for the civil service which had led to domination by the Mandarin elites **Local assemblies**, or councils, to be elected to discuss local issues. ○ The number of people who could vote was strictly limited to those with a higher level of education and a lot of money. ○ Less than half a percent of the whole population was able to vote. ○ Any changes that were voted for had to be delayed for 9 years to make sure that the change was sufficiently gradual. ** National Consultative Council** ○ a 'cabinet' i.e. a group of ministers who could advise the emperor. ○ They would have no real power but could provide a wider range of ideas for ruling China. **Military reforms** New naval and **military academies** Reorganisation of the military to strengthen Qing control **Economic reforms** Government planned to build **more railways** and **promote industrialisation** The railways would be brought under government control rather than being run by private companies. ○ This would ensure that they were less likely to be used by opponents of the regime and allow the imperial government to move troops easily to protect themselves The sale of **opium was banned** **Foreign investment encouraged** to help grow industrial development **Social reforms** Traditional customs, like **foot**-**binding**, were criticised **Schools for girls** were set up in some areas **How did the Qing government hope these reforms would help them keep control of China?** 9 **Criticism of the New Reforms** **Political** Reforms still **excluded the masses** from political participation, and this particularly irritated the **educated** Chinese **Economic** Opium farmers complained about the ban on their crops The government needed to **raise taxes** to pay for the reforms Government policies led to **inflation** People's high taxes were going to the foreigners to pay for **reparations Social** Mandarin class was upset by those who had spent years training for the elite exams Education of girls and challenging footbinding was unpopular in **traditional** parts of China **Growth of political opposition in China C L** **Rise of revolutionaries** There was a continued **growth of opposition** to the Imperial government The Qing had demonstrated that they were incapable of meaningful reforms Some Chinese, particularly middle class young men who had been educated abroad in the west or Japan, advocated a **republican** revolution as the only option; constitutional monarchy could not be made to work. There were many **small attempts at rebellion** but there was insufficient support for anything effective **Sun Yat-Sen** Sun had been involved in revolutionary activities and  had been banished from China From his exile, he corresponded with Chinese revolutionaries to try to encourage them to spark rebellion but none was effective. His ideals can be summarised as: ○ **Democracy** (republicanism) ○ **Nationalism** (rejection of foreign exploitation) ○ **Livelihood of the People** (welfare) His ideology was strongly influenced by his experience of living in western countries e.g. Britain 10 **Weakening of the Qing dynasty L** Emperor Guangxu and Dowager Empress Cixi both died in 1908\. Some historians believe that, knowing that she was about to die, Cixi poisoned her nephew because she did not believe he could rule without her. She died the next day As Chinese tradition was that the throne passed forward a generation, it was the childless Guangxu's nephew, not his brother, who succeeded him, The new Emperor was the two-year old **Pu Yi**, with his inexperienced father Chun as **Regent** Chun sacked the leading army general Yuan Shikai concerned that he was getting too powerful. Yuan was now an enemy of the dynasty. Chun sold the right to build railways to foreign companies; this was hugely unpopular 11 **1.3 1911 Revolution** **Origins of the 1911 Revolution C L** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Long term** | | +===================================+===================================+ | Political criticism | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Resentment of | | | | | | foreign influences | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Short term** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Opposition | | | | | | movements | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Failures of Qing | | | | | | Dynasty | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Resentment of | | | | | | foreign influences | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ 12 **Spark of the 1911 Revolution** 9 October 1911: some plotters in Wuhan accidentally set off a bomb which was seen as a wider signal for revolt. 10 October 1911: local army **refused to obey orders** to suppress the revolt (date was remembered as **Double Tenth**) Rebels **declared independence** from the Qing dynasty The revolt spread to other provinces In November 1911 representatives of the rebels **declared an independent Chinese republic** and invited Sun Yat-Sen (in Colorado at the time) to be the President. However they did not have a strong military. Sun Yat-Sen arrived in China in early 1912 and commanded the loyalty of the provinces where revolution had been successful However the Qing had not quite given up; Chun contacted **Yuan Shikai**, the man he had sacked, and asked him to come back to lead the Imperial Army. Yuan contacted Sun Yat-Sen and offered to force the resignation of the Qing to create a republic but would only do this if Sun allowed Yuan to become President. February 1912: **Pu Yi abdicated as Emperor** and Sun Yat-Sen stepped aside for Yuan to be new President of China  **Yuan Shikai** **Explain two causes of the 1911 Revolution (8)** One cause of the 1911 Revolution was... A further cause of the 1911 Revolution was... Ensure that, for these eight mark questions you are explaining how the cause led the the outcome. You could use the words "\...and this led to the outcome because..." to really guarantee that your answer is focused 13 **Outcome of the 1911 Revolution C L** The 1911 revolution was more significant in what it destroyed - Chinese imperial rule - rather than in what it created which was an uneasy compromise between **two very different concepts of the future**. Sun Yat-Sen had let Yuan take over to ensure a republic. **Sun did not trust Yuan** who he feared would become power-crazed; he feared that Yuan's motivation had been revenge on Chun rather than any positive desire for a Republic. **Yuan did not trust Sun** as he feared that any left-leaning policies which involved taking land from landowners to give to peasants would harm the richer Chinese including many army officers. Sun set up new political party, the **Guomindang** (GMD) the Nationalist Party, and urged that a representative body be elected on a democratic basis as soon as possible. In the 1912 National Assembly elections, the **GMD won around 50 per cent** of the seats in the lower house (the other seats were generally won by more conservative parties but they were not working together) Although the GMD was called Nationalist, we need to remember that Sun's principles were: ○ **Democracy** (republicanism) ○ **Nationalism** (rejection of foreign exploitation) ○ **Livelihood of the People** (welfare) so were not as conservative at this point. 14 ---------------------------- -- --------- **Threat to the Republic** **C L** ---------------------------- -- --------- **F** In 1913 Yuan **suspended the National Assembly** and proclaimed himself President for the next ten years; in effect to rule as a dictator. Sun Yat-Sen **fled to Japan**, in fear of his life China had become, in effect, a **military dictatorship** In order to get a greater grip, Yuan began to negotiate **loans from foreign powers** which included giving them even greater control over China In 1915, with Japan fighting the First World War, Yuan **submitted to Japanese demands** to control most of China's industrial infrastructure - factories, ports, railway lines. Yuan feared Japanese invasion if he did not agree to this. Yuan then announced the re-establishment of the Chinese Empire and **proposed making himself Emperor** of China However, these developments were a step too far for the GMD and also most of the army leadership, and military units around China stopped obeying Yuan. In 1916 Yuan suffered a fatal stroke. **Discussion point: In what ways did Yuan replicate the errors of the Qing dynasty? 1.4 China under the Warlords** ---------------------- -- --------- **China after 1916** **C L** ---------------------- -- --------- Without a central army leader figure, there was no concerted army leadership and China **fragmented** into chaotic regional rule under military leaders, or **warlords**. Sun Yat-Sen returned to China in 1916 to try to unify China under a democratic republic and he resurrected the **Guomindang** which had been banned under Yuan. He was based in the south at **Guangzhou** The successors of Yuan's government was based in **Beijing** in the north and was internationally the officially-recognised government of China although it controlled little of the country. However they were just another set of warlords. This map shows the areas controlled by warlord coalitions in red while Sun's Guangzhou is the coastal region in blue, alongside an inland blue warlord region controlled by allies of Sun  15 -------------------------------- -- --------- **Structure of warlord China** **C L** -------------------------------- -- --------- The strongest were the most powerful and this often meant that there were **brutal** and **undemocratic** regimes across the country. Warlords ran their own **taxation** system, their own **legal** system and generally controlled the people through **terror**. This was also compounded by the fact that many of these warlords were in competition with each other to expand their territory. There were literally hundreds of warlords fighting for supremacy in local areas. ----------------------------- -- -- ------------- **Life under the warlords** **C E L S** ----------------------------- -- -- ------------- Looking at three of the many warlords gives us an idea of the similarities and differences in the way that they ran their regions. ○ **Feng Yuxiang** was known as the Christian General as he insisted his men were baptised into the Christian faith often using a hosepipe to spray them all with symbolic water. He tried to run his province in line with Christian moral values although this did not extend to democratic political systems. ○ **Zang Zongzhang** was brutal and tough - his nickname 'the melon splitter' derived from his punishment of cutting enemies' heads open with one blow of his sword. ○ **Zhang Zuolin** was also a harsh leader, having two of his men beheaded for entering a cinema without paying; but he was also renowned for trying hard to improve the industrial strength of his region, Manchuria. The people who lived under warlord control were in a constant state of fear and instability. ○ They may be robbed and their families attacked by other warlords and their own warlord may not be able to, or wish to, protect them. The **lawlessness** was a source of huge anxiety. ○ This state of affairs **hindered economic development** as people struggled just to survive. ○ For these reasons, it is not surprising that people looked for **revolutionary solutions** as the depth of their suffering was very great 16 ----------------------------- **The May Fourth movement** ----------------------------- **C F** In 1917 the Beijing government had **joined the First World War** supporting the Allies although the Japanese refused to let the Chinese army fight and they had to send workers instead. China's aim was to be rewarded with the return of German-held Treaty Ports once the war had ended. In May 1919, China received news from the post-war negotiations at Versailles that German possessions in China were to be **given to Japan** There was particular bitterness about the way that the Allies were **not applying self-determination to China** despite this being a principle of the Treaty of Versailles. On 4 May 1919 students at Beijing University led a **demonstration** at Tiananmen Square calling on China's government to resist this. The demonstrations spread to other cities. Students had, for some time, been complaining about the lack of democracy and development in China; in 1919 this was inflamed further by the actions of the allies. The **student movement grew** rapidly. The movement encouraged calls for democracy, modernisation through science, freedom, equal rights; essentially 'western' qualities which would **challenge traditions** in China. The ideas were know as the **New Tide**. It would grow through the 1920s as opposition to the warlords developed. The 4th May 1919 is often considered the birth of modern China and the origin of what would become the Communist regime **Discussion point: Why is May Fourth regarded as more significant than the 1911 revolution in modern China?** **Explain two causes of the May Fourth movement (8)** 17 ---------------------- ----------- **Guomindang (GMD)** **C L F** ---------------------- -----------  **Party flag of the GMD** Sun was based in Guangzhou in the south of China The **ideas of the GMD** were especially appealing to many of those involved in the May Fourth and especially those suffering under the uncertainties and terror of landlord rule. However, the military brutal aggression of the warlords meant that to apply this to the whole of China, **Sun needed an effective army and to maximise opposition to the warlords**. Sun set up a **military academy** to train soldiers for the GMD to create the New Republican Army. This was at Whampoa. Sun **accepted help from the Soviet Union (USSR)**; representatives came to advise how to organise a modern political party and modern army with many followers and a strong central leadership. 18 **1.5 Development of the United Front** ----------------------------------- **Chinese Communist Party (CCP)** ----------------------------------- **C L** Just as the May Fourth movement had inspired many to join the GMD, it also inspired some to turn to **Communism** Communism was becoming more popular in parts of China partly because of its success in Russia where Communists formed the government in 1917. There were similarities between the two countries as pre-revolutionary Russia had been **politically unreformed** and **economically backwards** like China. Therefore Chinese Communists believed that they could have a successful revolution in China. The CCP was set up in 1921 by a number of **intellectuals from Beijing University** including Chen Duxui and Mao Zedong. In 1922 the Chinese Communist Party joined the GMD in a **United Front** under the advice of the USSR. The USSR did not support the ultimate aims of the GMD which were **reformist** rather than the revolutionary, Communist aims of the CCP. Nevertheless the United Front would allow the CCP to **piggyback** onto the stronger GMT in the short term to destroy warlord control **Explain two causes of the founding of the CCP in 1921 (8)** 19 ----------------------- **Chiang Kai-Shek C** ----------------------- **L** Sun died in 1925 and was succeeded by a colleague **Chiang Kai-Shek** who had helped found the GMD back in 1912 Chiang was a **military man** and had been chosen by Sun to lead the Whampoa academy. He was very different from the thoughtful and academic Sun Yat-Sen. Chiang was more **conservative** than Sun; in particular he was sceptical about working with Communists as he did not believe the ideology would suit China and did not have such radical ideas about reform. He was not seen by some of the GMD as the obvious man to take over as he was a military leader but Sun knew that it was important to have someone who could tackle the physical strength of the warlords rather than have a political leader without that army experience. **Winning the fight came first** and they could then concentrate on political discussions afterwards. ---------------------------------------- **The First United Front 1923-1927 C** ---------------------------------------- **F** Aims were ○ To **end the warlord rule** ○ To **expel foreigners** from China ○ To **improve the lives** of the Chinese people This basically corresponds to the **Three Principles of the People** of Sun Yat-Sen's Guomindang. The GMD need to work with the CCP because: ○ The **USSR's financial support** of the GMD as well as the CCP, Comintern advised this way forwards. ○ In the short term, it made sense for the GMD to go along with what their advisors were saying. It was difficult, though, as many of the GMD's supporters were wealthy businessmen who wanted China to be free in order for it to develop economic strength in a capitalist direction. An event which symbolised why a United Front was needed happened on 30 May 1925; there was a demonstration of Chinese workers in a British-owner Treaty Port complaining about their inferior treatment; a British commander shot into the crowd and 12 people were killed. This became a **symbol of Chinese struggle** against cruel foreign oppression and encouraged the revolutionary movement. **Explain two causes of the development of the United Front in 1923 (8)** 20 **Six mark questions** Six mark questions ask you to explain either [similarities] or [differences] **Explain two ways in which the way China was ruled in 1926 was different to how it was ruled in 1900 (6)** **Method:** You should write **two** paragraphs and each paragraph should contain an example from **both** of the dates provided. Begin your first (short) paragraph with the phrase: *One similarity between opposition to the government in 1911 and in 1934 was...* Begin your second (short) paragraph with the phrase: *A second similarity between opposition to the government in 1911 and in 1934 was...* Similarities/differences must be illustrated with precise, detailed, and substantial evidence. You can choose any similarities you like, but try to stick to the most obvious, as this will make the answer easier to write, and to mark. The question will often be quite specific (for instance, it may ask about developments in the economy, or about different rebellions). You **must** make sure you focus on the question; even if there are other areas of the conflicts that appear similar, you **must only write about those features highlighted in the question**. It is a good idea to use language such as SIMILARITIES: 'still', 'continued', 'stayed the same', 'in comparison' DIFFERENCES 'whereas', 'more', 'less', 'larger', 'smaller' 'in contrast' 21 **The Northern Expedition 1926-1928 C L** The GMD's National Revolutionary Army (NRA) numbered only 75,000. However the United Front of the GMD and CCP gave Chiang Kai-Shek enough strength and confidence to tackle the warlords. The campaign was called the **Northern Expedition** - the NRA under Chiang's command struck our from their southern bases as shown in this map:  The plan was to **surround and capture individual** warlords' territories, thereby cutting off its supply lines, and sweep up through China. The tactic, developed with advice from the Soviets, was very effective. The warlords had little response to this as they did not work together effectively. The NRA also took great care that their troops **treated the local populations with dignity**, ensuring that they paid for any food they needed or for any accommodation that they used. This **contrasted with the warlords'** treatment of the population and helped to win over the masses to support the army in turning the warlords out. By 1927 the NRA numbered 250,000 Chiang even managed to **bribe some of the warlords** to become part of the United Front - if they joined him, they could keep their lands and armies as long as they followed his instructions. This was a risky strategy as the locals often wanted their warlords to be kicked out. Fang Yu-shang (the Christian General) for example was allowed to be a major military leader for the new-post warlord era. Chiang Kai-Shek declared, in 1928, that the **GMD was the legal government** for the whole of China. 22 The Northern Expedition was a success for Chiang because the warlords lacked: Cohesion Training Motivation Support from the CCP Support from the population Soviet-backed military supplies and experienced Soviet advisors **Explain two causes of the Northern Expedition from 1926 (8)** **Shanghai Massacre 1927 C L** Chiang's GMD turned on the Communists in Shanghai and thousands of the CCP were killed. This was clearly the effective end of the United Front. Attacks on the CCP spread further and many more **thousands were killed** by the GMD. Chiang encouraged **crime gangs and secret societies** to join in the 'purging' of Communists. One of these was called the Green Gang - an organised crime gang which made money through controlling prostitution, drugs and through threatening people. Chiang effectively gave them the authority to kill whoever they wanted. This has been called the '**White Terror**' by historians - the term 'white' usually denotes élite classes as opposed to 'red' which denotes socialists and communists. **Why did Chiang end the United Front this way?** The United Front had **always been built on shaky foundations**: the CCP were in it because they were too small and weak on their own and the GMD were in it because they could benefit from the assistance of this group and the fact that helping the CCP meant that they maintained advice, financial support and military help from the USSR. As the **Northern Expedition became increasingly successful**, so the justification for the United Front became a little bit weaker (we could draw a comparison with the Grand Alliance of Superpowers at the end of the Second World War - they were joined together out of necessity but once their aim was achieved, there was more driving them apart than holding them together) 23 Chiang was **under pressure from his wealthier followers** to ditch the Communists as they didn't want to see a Communist China; they had tolerated the CCP in order to get any advantage out of doing this but once they no longer needed this assistance, it was hard for Chiang to justify continued relations with the CCP. The GMD and CCP had been able to gain control of the important port city of Shanghai by combining forces, using the workers ability to go on strike to damage the control of the warlord and eventually to get the warlord to step down. However, once he was gone, it was clear that **the influence of the Communists in Shanghai had been growing quickly**. It was the sort of place where Communism would be able to flourish as it was full of workers in poor conditions. **Factory bosses in Shanghai wanted Communism to be destroyed** as they feared for their property and their businesses. **Explain two causes of the Shanghai Massacre in 1927 (8)** **Soviet response to Shanghai massacres C L F** **Comintern said that the CCP needed to stay IN the United Front** despite the treachery of the GMD. Partly this was because Stalin was reluctant to reveal that he had made a wrong decision at any point. It was also in order to ensure that the Communists did not miss out on grabbing power in China at some point but it was not very realistic In the long run, this made Stalin look foolish to say the least and it certainly **affected the way that China and Russia would interact** once China DID become communist in 1949. Despite the orders from Comintern to stay in the United Front, **Mao and the CCP refused** to stay with the GMD. In the Autumn they staged an uprising against the Nationalists but this only showed how weak the CCP was at this stage. 24 **The Jiangxi Soviet 1927-1934 C L S** The CCP had to flee to the mountainous **Jiangxi** region; although it was essentially an enclave being surrounded by nationalist territory, nevertheless the hilly terrain meant that it could be defended. **'Soviet'** is the Russian word for a council and in modern times has become used exclusively for an organisation representing, and composed of, working class people. Mao adjusted his ideology to determine that a Communist Revolution in China would be led by the **peasantry**. Mao **confiscated land** from Jiangxi landowners and distributed it to local peasantry **Mao's instructions to the Red Army about how to treat the peasantry** **Discussion point: What do these instructions**  **reveal about the usual experience of** **vulnerable populations?** 25 ------------------------------------------- **The Extermination Campaigns 1930-1934** ------------------------------------------- **C L F** Chiang **wanted to destroy the Communists** as he knew their aim was to take over China one day. Although they were a small group, and no longer had the backing of Comintern, nevertheless he felt that their threat was potentially very great. In 1930 Chiang began to launch attacks on the Jiangxi territory. To avoid encirclement the CCP used **guerrilla warfare** strategy - avoiding face-to face fighting and instead setting traps for the enemy and ambushing them in small groups. They captured and horribly killed the GMD general leading the forces. In following years Chiang led a number of subsequent attacks but often his **troops were repelled by the Communist-supporting peasants**. Chiang dealt very harshly with the peasants, carrying out cruel reprisals against them. Ultimately the Nationalist**s killed over a million peasants** in their attempts to clear out the Communists from Jiangxi. After 1933, Chiang's nationalists had additional **help from the German army** as the newly-appointed Hitler had sent one of his top generals to China to help ensure that Communism could not grow any further. The Nationalists were able to slowly 'strangle' the Jiangxi region by cutting off routes for food and fuel - **blockading** it, in fact. By 1934 the Jiangxi communists were **facing defeat** by the nationalists. **Explain two ways in which opposition to the government in 1934 was similar to opposition to the government in 1911 (6)** 26 **Summary of Module 1** +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | | **Civil | **Foreign | **Social** | **Leadershi | | | conflict, | influences* | | p** | | | order and | * | **transform | | | | disorder** | | ation** | | | | | **Economic* | | | | | | * | | | | | | | | | | | | **on | | | | | | China** | | | | | | | | | | | | **transform | | | | | | ation** | | | +=============+=============+=============+=============+=============+ | **BACKGROUN | Rise of | Treaty | Peasant | Imperial | | D** | nationalist | Ports - Br | community | rule by | | | | and Fr | | Manchu | | | sentiments | | Patriarchy | dynasty | | | vs | Agrarian | | | | | foreigners | society; | Confucianis | Mandate of | | | and vs weak | | m | heaven | | | leadership | \- over 50 | | | | | | by 1900 | | Dowager | | | | | | Empress | | | | v little | | Cixi | | | | industry | | | | | | | | | | | | Japan took | | | | | | Korea | | | | | | | | | | | | Ports | | | | | | 'owned' by | | | | | | | | | | | | foreigners | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **01 Fall | Boxer | Boxer | Self-streng | Causes of | | of the | uprising | uprising | thening | Boxer | | Qing. | | | | uprising | | Warlordism | 1899-1902 | Self-streng | reforms | 1899-1902 | | and chaos | | thening | 1902-1911 | | | 1900-1934** | 1911 | | | Response to | | | Revolution | 1899-1902 | Differing | Boxers | | | | | experiences | | | | Warlord era | reforms | in cities | 1899-1902 | | | | 1902-1911 | and | | | | May 4th | | countryside | Impact of | | | movement | Japan 21 | | Boxer | | | | demands | Impact of | uprising | | | Sun - GMD | | warlord era | 1899-1902 | | | 1919 | Warlord era | on | | | | | | conditions | Self-streng | | | Mao - CCP | Impact of | of living | thening | | | 1921 | warlord era | | | | | | | | reforms | | | Chiang - | inhibiting | | 1902-1911 | | | GMD 1925 | economic | | | | | | | | Puyi and | | | United | USSR | | Chun | | | Front | support for | | 1908-11 | | | 1924-1927 | GMD | | | | | Northern | | | 1911 | | | Expedition | growth | | Revolution | | | 1926-1928 | | | | | | | German help | | 1916 Yuan | | | Jianxi | for Chiang | | emperor | | | Soviet | | | | | | 1927-1934 | | | Warlord era | | | Exterminati | | | | | | on | | | Sun - GMD | | | | | | 1919 | | | Campaigns | | | | | | 1930-1934 | | | Mao - CCP | | | | | | 1921 | | | | | | | | | | | | Chiang - | | | | | | GMD 1925 | | | | | | | | | | | | United | | | | | | Front | | | | | | 1924-1927 | | | | | | Northern | | | | | | Expedition | | | | | | 1926-1928 | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ 27 **Revision discussion prompts:** **Module 1:** Emperor Guangxu did not genuinely have power because... Mandarins were unpopular because... Foreign missionaries were unpopular in China because... Foreigners in Treaty Ports were unpopular in China because... Guangxu tried to modernise China in 1898 because... Cixi tried to stop him modernising China because... Cixi encouraged the Boxers because... Eight-Nation Alliance was able to crush the Boxer Uprising because... Punishment of China by the Eight-Nation Alliance was humiliating because... The Emperors tried to reform China because... We can tell that the policies were designed to protect the Imperial dynasty rather than improve China because... Guangxu's successor as Emperor was vulnerable because... Economic grievances had got worse since 1902 because... The people did not trust the Qing dynasty because... Sun Yat-Sen's ideas of nationalism, democracy and welfare of the people were likely to become popular because... It was a surprise that the emperors asked Yuan Shikai to help them because... The Wuhan mutiny of 10 October was significant because... Puyi agreed to abdicate because... Sun Yat-Sen allowed Yuan Shikai to become President in 1912 because... Sun Yat-Sen had to flee to Japan in 1913 because... Japan's Twenty-One demands in 1915 were shocking to the Chinese because... Yuan Shikai made a big mistake in 1915 because... Leadership of China was very fragmented because... Life was hard for people under warlord rule in China because... The warlord Zang Zongzhang was notorious in China because... The May the Fourth movement was significant because... Sun Yat-Sen's Guomindang party fell apart after 1913 because... Sun Yat-Sen set up the Whampoa Military Academy in 1924 because... It was odd that the Soviet Union helped the Guomindang with advice because... Chiang Kai-Shek was a very different type of leader to Sun Yat-Sen because China was not a likely place for the success for Communism according to Marx's theory because... Sun Yat-Sen's Three Principles of the People fitted generally with Communist ideology because... Sun Yat-Sen's Three Principles of the People diverged from Communist ideology because... Comintern advised cooperation between the GMD and the CCP because... The 30 May incident displayed the need for a United Front because... Chiang Kai-Shek lauched a northern expedition because... The Northen Expedition was successful because... The United Front ended because... 28 The Shanghai massacres are significant because... Stalin ordered the CCP to stay in the United Front even after the Shanghai massacres because... The Jiangxi republic could defend its territory for quite a long time because The CCP began to victimise richer peasants in their territory because... Chiang Kai-Shek got support from Germany after 1933 because... Chiang managed to take the Jiangxi Soviet to the brink of surrender because... 29