Child Development Midterm #1 Review PDF

Bratovz 1 Child Development Midterm #1 Review Chapter 1 - Child Development: Theories and Themes What is Lifespan Development? -​ Lifespan development examines patterns of -​ Growth: Physical and Psychological -​ Change: Ex. Improving/losing...

Bratovz 1 Child Development Midterm #1 Review Chapter 1 - Child Development: Theories and Themes What is Lifespan Development? -​ Lifespan development examines patterns of -​ Growth: Physical and Psychological -​ Change: Ex. Improving/losing existing skills -​ Stability: Ex. Characteristics, abilities Influences on Development -​ Age-graded influences: biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group -​ Ex. Puberty and menopause, entry into formal education at around age 6 -​ History-graded influences: biological and environmental influences associated with particular historical moment includes cohorts -​ Ex. Cohort effects, wars, economic depressions, terrorist attacks, epidemics, famines -​ Sociocultural-graded influences: social and cultural factors present at particular time for a particular individual, depending on such variables as -​ Ex. Ethnicity, social class, subcultural membership (ex. White and affluent versus minority group and impoverished) -​ Non-normative life event: atypical events that occur in a particular person's life at a time when such events do not happen to most people (Ex. Child witnessing a tragic event at 6) Continuous change vs discontinuous change -​ Continuous change: gradual development, quantitative (numeral), a matter of degree (height), not kind -​ Discontinuous change: distinct stages, qualitative (kind), changes in thinking Critical periods vs sensitive periods -​ Critical period: the absence/presence of certain kinds of environmental influences… to produce permanent, irreversible consequences for the developing individual. -​ Rubella in the first 20 weeks of pregnancy - potential for blindness, deafness and heart defects -​ 30th week of pregnancy; damage is unlikely -​ Sensitive period: the absence of particular environmental influences may hinder development -​ Possible for later experiences to overcome the earlier deficits -​ Susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli - optimal period -​ Ex. Music & sports training -​ Recognizes the plasticity of developing humans Lifespan approach vs particular periods approach -​ Particular periods approach: infancy and adolescence are the most important parts -​ Lifespan approach: the entire life is important -​ Development growth and change continue during every part of life -​ Social environment -​ Gains (Ex. Vocabulary) and losses (Ex. Reaction time)  Bratovz 2 Nature vs nurture -​ Nature: hereditary information, traits, abilities, capacities -​ Maturation; the predetermined unfolding of genetic information -​ Nurture: influences of the environment -​ Biological: the impact of a pregnant mother’s use of cocaine on her unborn child, the amount and kind of food available to children -​ Social: parents discipline style, the effects of peer pressure on an adolescent -​ Societal-level: socioeconomic status -​ The interaction of genetic and environmental factors -​ e.g. intelligence Theories of Child Development: Historical Perspectives -​ John Locke: (English, 1632-1704) tabula rasa -​ Jean-Jacques Rosseau: (French, 1712-1778) innate sense of justice -​ James Mark Baldwin: (Canada, 1861-1934 ) theory guides experimentation -​ Theory should come first Biological Perspective Cognitive, personality, physical, and motor development proceed according to a biological plan -​ Natural Selection (Darwin, 1809-1882) -​ An ongoing process in nature that results in survival of those organisms that are best adapted to their environments. -​ Maturation Theory (Arnold Gesell, 1880–1961) -​ Child development reflects a specific and pre-arranged scheme or plan within the body -​ without interference from adults & according to the predetermined developmental timetable -​ Ethological Theory -​ Evolutionary perspective: adaptive behaviours -​ Survival value -​ Crying - elicits caregiving from others -​ Imprinting - cannot occur if no moving object within bout a day of hatching - emotional bond with the mother Psychodynamic Perspective -​ Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Theory of personality -​ Components of personality -​ Id-primitive -​ Ego-practical/rational -​ Superego-"moral agent" -​ Psychosexual Theory -​ Individual's instinct vs societal norms -​ Libido -​ Motive for physical pleasure -​ Libido shifts to different parts of the body  Bratovz 3 Psychosocial Theory -​ Erik Erickson (1902-1994) -​ Emphasis on social and cultural influences -​ Sequence of stages defined by a unique crisis -​ Journey to adulthood is fraught with obstacles The Learning Perspective -​ John B Watson (1878-1958) -​ Strong emphasis on environmental influences -​ Endorses Locke's tabula rasa theory -​ "little Albert" experiment Early Learning Theories: Classical Conditioning -​ Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) -​ Famous dog experiment -​ Unconditioned and conditioned stimuli -​ Unconditioned and conditioned response Early Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning -​ B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) -​ Focuses on outcome of behaviour -​ Reinforcement -​ reinforcement- to increase the likelihood of a behaviour -​ Punishment - to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour Early Learning Theories: Social Cognitive Theory -​ Albert Bandura (1925-2021) -​ Imitation or observational learning -​ Social cognitive theory -​ Self-efficacy  Bratovz 4 The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective -​ Jean Piaget (1896-1980) -​ Infants, children, and adolescents -​ Children are naturally motivated to make sense of the physical and social world -​ “Little scientists” -​ 4 distinct stages in cognitive development: -​ Sensorimotor (0-2) -​ Preoperational thought (2-6) -​ Concrete operational thought (7-11) -​ Formal operational thought (Adolescence and beyond) The Contextual Perspective -​ Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) -​ A sociocultural approach to cognitive development -​ Culture -​ Tools: language, symbols, customs -​ Provides the context in which a child develops -​ Important influence from infancy to adolescence Ecological Systems Theory -​ Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) -​ Various environmental influences -​ Environment is a series of embedded systems -​ Microsystem -​ Mesosystem -​ Exosystem -​ Macrosystem -​ Chronosystem Other Approaches to Child Development -​ Information Processing Theory -​ Human mind is similar to a computer -​ Evolutionary Theory -​ Evolution shapes behaviour and characteristics -​ Survival of infants and children -​ Grandparent-grandchild relationships: investment in the survival of one's own kin -​ Developmental Psychopathology -​ Broad unified understanding of how abnormal development can occur Research in Child Development ​Measurement in Child-Development Research -​ Systematic Observation: naturalistic and structured -​ Sampling Behaviour with Tasks -​ Self Reports: questionnaires or interviews  Bratovz 5 Systematic Observation -​ Watching children and carefully recording what they do or say -​ Naturalistic -​ Structured Sampling Behaviour with Tasks -​ Create tasks that are thought to sample the behaviour of interest -​ Ecological validity? Self-Reports -​ People's thoughts or ideas about questions related to a topic of interest -​ Who'll answer my question? -​ Child, parents, teachers, daycare providers -​ Reliability -​ Validity -​ Convergent validity (positively correlated) vs. Divergent validity (NOT correlated) Representativeness -​ Samples of children who participate in research should be representative of the population of interest -​ Psychology of WEIRD -​ Psychological research in Canada -​ Socially diverse -​ Geographically large Increasing Sample Diversity -​ Be mindful of historical patterns of oppression and inequality -​ Adopt a racially diverse team science approach -​ Generate diverse samples -​ Consider the influence of multiple identity groups on human experience (intersectionality) -​ Promote the translation of knowledge from the laboratory to the field Design & Measurement Design: Correlational & Experimental Measurement: Longitudinal - microgenetic, Sequential, and ross-sectional  Bratovz 6 General Designs for Research -​ Descriptive statistics vs Inferential statistics Inferential Statistics -​ Correlational Studies -​ Relations as they exist in the real world -​ Associations between variables -​ Correlation coefficient, r, -1.0 + 1.0 -​ Not a measure of causation -​ Comparing variables/means to see if there are differences between them -​ If an average of 10 inches of rain falls in June one year and an average of 12 inches of rain falls in June the next year -​ P-value: probability of obtaining a particular measurement if, in fact, no real difference existed between the conditions being observed -​ Some journals banned the use of p-value, but require the use of descriptive statistics and effect sizes Experimental studies -​ Systematic way of manipulating the key factor(s) that an investigator thinks causes a particular behaviour -​ Independent variable -​ Dependent variable -​ Mediator variable -​ Moderator variable -​ Random assignment Field Experiments -​ Manipulate independent variables in a natural setting so that the results are more likely to be representative of behaviour in real-world settings -​ Ex. Providing child development courses to half of the care givers & comparing with the other half Methods for Studying Development -​ Longitudinal study -​ Measuring individual change -​ For example, language development  Bratovz 7 -​ Microgenetic study -​ The variables of interest are measured in the same research participants repeatedly over a short period of time, such as days or weeks, in order to capture an aspect of rapid developmental change -​ Sequential design -​ The variables of interst are measured repeatedly over time in the same groups of research participants, with each group having been born in a different time period -​ Following a group of 5 year olds, a group of 10 year olds, and a group of 15 year olds over a five year period, measuring all children in each group on the same variables -​ Cohort effects: the effect of a particular event, culture or historical experience on a particular group of children -​ Cross-sectional studies -​ Developmental changes are identified by testing children of different ages at one point in their development -​ No more practice effects or attrition -​ But… -​ The continuity of development -​ Cohort effects Issues with longitudinal Studies -​ Practice effects -​ Attrition Ethical Responsibilities -​ Minimize risks to research participants -​ Methods that have the least potential for harm or stress for research participants -​ Cost benefit analysis -​ Reasonable risk -​ Describe the research to potential participants -​ Informed consent vs assent -​ Avoid deception if possible -​ Keep results anonymous or confidential  Bratovz 8 More on Ethics: Value of Open Science -​ Researchers share data with others -​ Results can be scrutinized, used for replication, or new ideas -​ Values work that is non-empirical -​ Open access - publications available to anyone without needing to pay Child-Development Research and Family Policy -​ Family Policy -​ Laws and regulations that directly or indirectly affect families with children -​ Even more important as families are changing -​ Traditional families - stay at home mom & working dad -​ Families with a single parent -​ Families in which both parents are employed outside the home -​ Blended families that include stepparents and step or half-siblings Evidence Based Practice -​ An approach to practice in health services using those methods of intervention and assessment that have been demonstrated, through the best available research evidence, to be effective Ways to Influence Social Policy -​ Build understanding of children and their development -​ Understanding of the key factors affecting children's development, not stereotypes or assumptions -​ Residential schools -​ Serve as an advocate for children -​ Individual parents usually lacks the expertise and resources to represent children adequately -​ Its on child development researchers -​ Evaluate policies and programs and develop a model program Conclusions -​ A variety of research methods may be used in the study of children -​ Parental consent and child assent are important prior to data collection -​ Studies published in peer reviewed journals form the backbone of scientific knowledge about child development Genetic Bases of Child Development Genes -​ Not deterministic but probabilistic -​ Interact with the environment  Bratovz 9 The Biology of Heredity -​ Ectogenesis: fertilization of an egg outside the uterus -​ In vitro fertilization -​ Mixing sperm and egg together in a lab dish and then placing several fertilized eggs in the mother about 24 hours later, with the hope that one will become implanted in the wall of her uterus -​ How many parents can a baby have? -​ Autosomes: first 22 pairs of chromosomes -​ Sex chromosomes: 23rd pair -​ X from egg ​ - XX: biologically female -​ X or Y from the sperm - XY: biologically male -​ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): code for specific genes -​ Genotype: one's complete set of genes -​ Phenotype: one's physical, behavioural, and psychological features -​ Genetic and environmental factors Single Gene Inheritance -​ 46 chromosomes - about 20,000-25,000 genes -​ Each gene has a pair of allele -​ Specific form of a gene, homozygous or heterozygous -​ Homozygous -​ Inherited identical versions of the gene from both parents -​ Heterozygous -​ Inherited different alleles of a gene -​ Dominant alleles -​ Recessive alleles -​ Incomplete dominance Behavioural Genetics -​ The study of the inheritance of behavioural and psychological traits -​ Relationships between genes and complex behavioural and psychological traits is a difficult area of study -​ No either - or traits (either curly or straight hair) but represent a broad range of outcomes along a continuum of possibilities (somewhat extrovert, very introvert, etc.) -​ Polygenic inheritance: when phenotypes reflect the combined activity of many separate genes -​ Many psychological traits involve countless genes -​ Twin studies  Bratovz 10 -​ Monozygotic/identical -​ Dizygotic/fraternal -​ Adoption studies Nonshared Environmental Influences -​ Experiences and circumstances within a family that contribute to siblings being different -​ It usually affects each child in a unique way -​ Each child is likely to have different experiences in daily family life -​ Ex. Parents might be more affectionate with/use more punishment with/have higher expectations from one child than another Abnormal Chromosomes -​ Disorders are caused by: -​ Too many, too few, or damaged chromosomes -​ Missing or extra sex chromosomes -​ Down syndrome -​ Develop normally during the first few months -​ Later - delay in cognitive and behavioural development -​ Support system - preschool - programs to prepare for school -​ Elementary & secondary school - mainstreaming -​ Reason - unknown Genes, the environment, and behaviour -​ Influence of genes on behaviour -​ Is always indirect -​ By making behaviours more or less likely -​ Ex. No gene for alcoholism, but genes regulate how the body breaks down alcohol that is consumed -​ Some people became nauseated because their bodies cannot break down alcohol and are therefore less likely to become alcoholics -​ Behavioural consequence depends on the environment in which genetic instructions are carried out -​ Genetic reductionism: reducing the cause of environmental conditions and behaviours exclusively to genes -​ Genetic change over time is more the product of complex evolutionary processes  Bratovz 11 ​ Conclusion -​ Parents are the source of children's genes -​ Parents are the primary souce of young children's experiences -​ Non-shared environmental influences -​ There are intricate links between gene-environment relations -​ Nature and nurture Prenatal Development and Birth Prenatal Development -​ Begins during ovulation -​ Fertilization occurs when egg penetrated by a sperm -​ Zygote to embryo to fetus to baby From Conception to Birth: Period to the Zygote -​ Begins when the egg is fertilized in the fallopian tube -​ Implantation occurs during the first week and by week 2 the zygote (fertilized egg) burrows into wall of the uterus -​ Cluster of cells in the center of the zygote becomes the baby -​ Period of rapid cell division Period of the Embryo -​ Embryo is formed 3 to 8 weeks after conception -​ Body parts are formed during this period -​ Ectoderm: hair, outer layer of skin, nervous system -​ Mesoder,: muscles, bones, circulatory system -​ Endoderm: digestive system and lungs -​ Embryo rests in the amnion filled with amniotic fluid -​ Umbilical cord (cord blood banking) joins embryo to placenta -​ Growth during the embryonic period is: -​ Cephalocaudal: top extending down -​ Head to the body -​ Proximodistal: center extending out -​ Arms/legs to the hands/feet  Bratovz 12 Period of the Fetus -​ Fetus is formed 9 weeks after conception to birth -​ Huge increase in size -​ Nervous, respiratory and digestive systems begin to function -​ Brain growth, especially the cerebral cortex -​ Age of viability: age when body systems can function if baby is born (22-28 weeks) -​ Interaction with the environment -​ Recognize sounds -​ React sounds -​ Food Influences on Prenatal Development: General Risk Factors -​ Nutrition -​ What a pregnant mother eats is very important -​ Proteins, vitamins and minerals -​ Folic acid for the prevention of spina bifida -​ Stress -​ Chronic stress -​ Premature birth, low birth weight, oxygen flow to the fetus -​ Mother's age -​ Optimal age between 25-34 years -​ Risks for teenagers and mothers over 34 years of age -​ Younger mothers: infectious diseases -​ Older mothers: mental disorders, heart diseases, circulatory diseases, and congenital malformations Teratogens: diseases, drugs and environmental hazards -​ Teratogen: any agent that disrupts normal pregnancy -​ Thalidomide -​ Diseases (bacterial or viral) can be harmful -​ Environmental hazards, toxins through food, water, air or added to products such as paint, plastic -​ Dangerous drugs -​ Alcohol, aspirin, caffeine and nicotine (including second hand smoking) -​ Over the counter and prescription medications -​ Social/recreational drugs and illicit drugs -​ Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) -​ Intellectual delay and poor social judgement, limited motor skills, language, and visual-motor coordination -​ Small head, a thin upper lip, a short nose and widely spaced eyes -​ Marijuana -​ Stunted physical growth -​ Decreased birth weight -​ Cocaine -​ Complications during the pregnancy itself  Bratovz 13 How teratogens influence prenatal development -​ The impact of a teratogen depends upon the genotype of the child -​ Thalidomide was harmless to rats and rabbits -​ The impact of teratogens changes over the course of prenatal development -​ Each teratogen affects a specific aspect (or specific aspects) of prenatal development -​ Damage from teratogens is not always evident at birth but can appear later in life Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment -​ Diagnosis -​ Ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling (CVS) -​ Treatment -​ Maternal-fetal medicine, fetal surgery and gene therapy Labour and Delivery -​ Stage 1: beings when the muscles of the uterus contract and ends when the cervix is fully enlarged (about 10 cm) -​ Stage 2: baby is pushed down the birth canal -​ Crowning and breech presentation -​ Stage 3: placenta is expelled Approaches to childbirth -​ More natural or prepared approaches to childbirth favoured -​ Caesarean section (C-Section): surgical incision in mothers abdomen done by obstetricians to deliver baby -​ Childbirth classes -​ Doula: nonmedically trained support person -​ Obstetrician: specializes in female health and reproduction -​ Midwife: not a physician, but trained to assist in normal delivery Birth Complications -​ Complete oxygen deprivation (Anoxia) -​ Detachment of placenta from uterine wall (placental abruption) -​ Reduced supply of oxygen (Hypoxia) -​ Born less than 38 week gestation (prematurity) -​ Babies who are substantially smaller at birth (small for date infants) The Newborn -​ Assessing the newborn -​ Apgar: evaluate baby's condition by rating vital signs  Bratovz 14 The Newborn -​ Newborn States -​ Alert inactivity: the baby is calm, with eyes open and attentive. The baby looks to be deliberately inspecting the environment -​ Waking activity: the baby eyes are open, but seem unfocused. The baby moves arms or legs in bursts of uncoordinated motion -​ Crying: the baby cries vigorously and usually makes agitated but uncoordinated motions -​ Sleeping: the babys eyes are closed and the baby drifts back and forth from periods of regular breathing and stillness to periods of irregular breathing and gentle arm and leg motion -​ Quiet sleep (non-REM sleep) and active sleep (REM sleep) Sudden Infant Death Syndrome -​ "crib death": when a healthy baby dies suddenly, usually during sleep, for no apparent reason -​ Premature birth, low birth weight, smoking parents -​ When a baby sleeps on its stomach (face-down) -​ During winter - overheated from too many blankets and too heavy sleepwear -​ Cushiony surfaces, clothing, pillows, stuffed toys, blankets or other items which do not allow proper circulation of air around a babys face -​ Abusive head trauma and shaken baby syndrome -​ In Canada 3 babies per week die from SIDS The transition to parenthood Becoming a mother -​ Learning to be comfortable -​ Influence of rapid hormonal changes -​ Cultural differences in transition to motherhood Becoming a father -​ Couvade -​ Behaviour of an expectant father -​ Hormonal changes and fathering behaviour -​ Time spent with the child and the mother -​ Testosterone and estrogen Smooth transition to parenthood -​ Realistic expectations for how parenthood will change new parents lives -​ Personal goals usually need to change following the transition to parenthood -​ The fathers involvement in childcare is associated with more positive satisfaction trajectories for both parents Becoming a family -​ A number of issues that arise as new parents transition from being a couple to becoming a family -​ Fatigue and exhaustion -​ Feelings of anxiety, depression and self-doubt about prenatal competence -​ How to divide the additional work -​ Financial stress  Bratovz 15 Postpartum Depression -​ Half of all new moms feel some irritation, resentment and crying after giving birth -​ 10-15% feel more severe postpartum depression, low self worth, disturbed sleep, poor appetite, apathy -​ Children of depressed mothers are at an increased risk of developing depression and behavioural problems -​ Mothers may need treatment by mental health professions Physical Development in Infants and Toddlers Features of Human Growth -​ Rule of Thumb: -​ Triple the birth weight around 1 year -​ Boys achieve half their adult height by 2 years and girls 18 months -​ Follows the cephalocaudal principle -​ Disproportionately large head and trunk -​ Muscles become longer and thicker -​ “Baby fat” - before birth -​ Leaner in preschool years, acquire fat again in elementary school years -​ Obesity risk - not noticeable until the age of 4 -​ Cartilage: a soft, flexible tissue - bone -​ During the embryonic period, the middle of the tissue turns to bone -​ Before birth, ends of cartilage turn to bone -​ Shortly before birth, cartilage is replaced by bone Variations on the Average Profile -​ Secular Growth Trends: generational changes in physical development that are related to environment -​ Nutrition, healthcare, better living conditions -​ Average and normal are not the same, normal can vary greatly Mechanisms of Physical Growth 1.​ Heredity influences adult height -​ Fraternal twins - r ~0.50 -​ Identical twins - r > 0.90 -​ Two parents contribute equally - average of 2 parents’ height & child’s height: r~0.70 2.​ The pituitary gland secretes growth hormone -​ Usually at sleep (sometimes after exercise) -​ Muscles & bone grow -​ Low amount of GH - dwarfism (120-135 cm height, normal proportions) -​ Can be treated with injections of growth hormone 3.​ The thyroid gland releases thyroxine -​ Development of nerve cells & cognitive development -​ Some research on rats: material alcohol consumption - decreased thyroid function - cognitive delays  Bratovz 16 4.​ Nutrition is particularly important during infancy when growth is rapid -​ 40% energy devoted to growth -​ 100 and 120 calories per kg of body weight per day Nutrition: -​ Breast milk is recommended by the Canadian Pediatric Society for babies up to six months of age - exclusively -​ Barriers/Facilitators to breastfeeding -​ Donor breast milk -​ Bottle feeding -​ Introduce one food at a time (allergies) -​ At 2 years of age, growth slows and children can become “picky eaters” Mechanisms of Physical Growth Nutrition: -​ Primary responsibility on the caregivers -​ Sugar and simple carbs -​ Canadian sugar consumption is on the rise despite warnings Challenges to Healthy Growth Malnutrition -​ Homelessness and poverty -​ Especially damaging infancy -​ Cognitive development -​ Intelligence tests -​ Attention in school -​ Prevention: food availability, nutrition education, and behavioural change Diseases -​ About 45% of all child deaths are related to malnutrition -​ In Canada, asthma - increasing prevalence -​ Vary within the province - exposure to air pollution -​ Prevention: safe water, vaccines, improved health care, and changing habits Accidents: -​ After 1 year of age children are most likely to die from accidents -​ Most common: motor vehicle accidents -​ Prevention: infant car seats, proper use of seat belts -​ Drowning -​ Suffocation  Bratovz 17 The Developing Nervous System: A Basic Nerve Cell Organization of the Mature Brain -​ Cortex: about 10 billion neurons - many of the functions -​ Cerebral hemispheres: right and left halves of the cortex ​ Left Hemisphere: to produce and understand language, to reason and compute Right Hemisphere: artistic and musical abilities, perception of spatial relationships, and ability to recognize faces and emotions -​ Corpus callosum: a thick bundle of axons joining left and right hemispheres The Developing Brain -​ Brain originates in the neural plate (group of cells formed about 3 weeks after conception) -​ At about 10 weeks - production of neurons begins -​ Around 4 months - myelination -​ From synaptogenesis to synaptic pruning -​ Downsizing Structure and Function -​ Measurement of electrical activity -​ EEG - measure pattern of brain waves -​ Using a brain function should create a distinctive pattern in that region -​ Measurement of activation in the brain -​ fMRI - track the flow of blood in the brain -​ PET - use of glucose in the brain Frontal Cortex -​ Brain regions specialize early -​ “Flexible” or neuroplastic brain organization -​ Frontal cortex regulates: -​ deliberate , goal-oriented behaviours -​ Personality -​ Planning -​ Emotions -​ Left frontal cortex: approach emotions -​ Right frontal cortex: avoidance emotions -​ Low quality care  Bratovz 18 Motor Skills -​ Coordinated movements of the muscles and limbs -​ Crawling, walking, writing -​ Locomotion -​ Moving about in the world -​ Newborns - relatively immobile -​ Fine motor skills -​ Small muscle groups (Ex. grasping, holding, and manipulating objects) -​ Gross motor skills -​ Large muscle groups (Ex. running, throwing and jumping) Infant Reflexes -​ Unlearned responses triggered by a specific form of stimulation -​ Why? Preparation for world interaction -​ Some reflexes are important to survival -​ Ex. rooting and sucking -​ Some protect the newborn -​ Ex. blink and withdrawal -​ Some are foundations for later motor behaviour -​ Ex. stepping reflex: babies who are provided with opportunities to practice the stepping reflex to learn to walk earlier Locomotion -​ Individual variability -​ Not just natural maturation -​ Environmental factors -​ Dynamic systems theory: motor development involves many distinct skills Posture and Balance -​ To master walking, infants must acquire distinct skills of: -​ Standing upright -​ Maintaining balance (with a big and heavy head) -​ Stepping alternately -​ Using perceptual information to evaluate surfaces -​ Baby walkers -​ Banned in Canada (1989) -​ Limited control -​ Accidents Fine Motor Skills -​ Around 4 months -​ Reaching: random moves to reach an object -​ Grasping: just fingers to hold -​ Coordination: motion of hands are not coordinated  Bratovz 19 -​ As they grow old -​ Reaching: less movement to reach an object (efficiency) -​ Grasping: grasp finger foods - about 6 months - spoon around a year -​ Coordination: eye-hand coordination improves practice -​ Handedness -​ Study with infants and toddlers: -​ Equal use of both hands around 9 months -​ Emergence of a preference at 13 months -​ Stronger and consistent preference during preschool years -​ Established before kindergarten -​ Role of heredity -​ Cultures favour right handedness Sensory and Perceptual Processes -​ How to study? 1.​ Present stimuli -​ Ex. sour tasting substance, high pitched sound 2.​ Record physiological responses -​ Ex. heart rate, facial expression, head movement -​ Also; preference for novel stimulus over familiar Smell, Taste, and Touch -​ A keen sense of smell -​ Mothers smell, their amniotic fluids smell -​ Honey or chocolate - relaxed and content facial expression -​ Rotten eggs or ammonia - frown turn away -​ A highly developed sense of taste -​ They have a sweet tooth -​ Changes in the taste of breast milk - nurse more after a mother consumes vanilla -​ Sensitivity to touch -​ Pain experience - high pitched cry -​ Pain causes stress - neurological outcomes Hearing -​ A fetus can hear at about 7 or 8 months gestation -​ Auditory threshold: a quietest sound that a person can hear -​ Auditory localization: infants use sounds to judge the distance and location of objects -​ Study: shaking a rattle 15 cm vs 60 cm away in a dark room -​ 7 month olds reach for the rattle if shaken 15 cm away not 60 cm Seeing -​ Awake time: looking around like scanning or focusing on an object -​ Visual acuity -​ Patterned stimuli over plain, non-patterned stimuli -​ Newborns and 1 month old see at 6 metres what normal adults see at 60 to 120 metres -​ Perceive colours by 3 or 4 months -​ Master perceptual constancies early - around 4 months -​ Size, colour constancy, shape constancy  Bratovz 20 Depth -​ Visual cliff -​ Babies who can crawl -​ Babies 1.5 months old -​ Cannot crawl -​ Reduced heart rate on the deep side Conclusions -​ Nutrition is important for physical growth in children. -​ The brain and nervous system develop throughout childhood through synaptic pruning and myelination. -​ Infants are born with many reflexes while their locomotor skills progress through a series of milestones and reflect maturation and experience. -​ Soon after birth, infants coordinate information from different senses (vision, hearing, smell, touch). -​ Infants recognize by sight an object they have touched before and integrate what they hear with what they see.  Bratovz 21 Child Development Notes Continued Cognition in Infants and Toddlers Cognitive Development -​ Primarily as a result of repeated stimulation to sensory pathways and synaptic connections in the brain -​ Early levels of stimulation → later levels of capacity in terms of both cognitive ability and biological functioning -​ Piaget: Children’s cognitive development arose out of constant interaction between their level of maturation and their experiences in the world. -​ Other behaviourists: Solely out of children’s experience with the world Piaget’s Theory -​ Children naturally curious -​ Little scientists -​ They create theories about how the world works -​ Active engagement with the environment Basic Principles of Piaget’s Theory -​ Schemas: psychological structures that organize experience -​ Mental categories or conceptual models of interrelated events, objects, and knowledge that children build as they gain experience with situations, people and objects around them -​ Start with own actions and controlling their bodies -​ Assimilation: incorporate new experiences into existing schemas -​ Grasping schema work not only on favourite toy but also on other small objects -​ Accommodation: change schemas based on experience -​ Some objects must be lifted with two hands and some can't be lifted at all -​ Criticized for Eurocentric, socio-economic bias specific to Western nations  Bratovz 22 How Infants Learn: Habituation -​ Orienting response: a physical reaction to a strong or unfamiliar stimulus -​ Physically reacts, looks at the stimulus, experiences changes in heart rate and brain wave activity - indicate that the person noticed the stimulus -​ Habituation: a state of diminished responding to a stimulus as it becomes more familiar -​ Dishabituation: a state of re-orientation, when a person becomes aware of a stimulus to which the person previously had habituated -​ Classical conditioning: a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally produced by another stimulus -​ Ex. an infant might smile when she hears the family dogs excited bark because she knows the dog is coming to play with her -​ Operant conditioning: focuses on consequences and reoccurrence of behaviours -​ Ex. when a baby smiles, an adult might hig the baby in return, making the baby more likely to smile in the future -​ Limitation: watching others behave -​ Ex. a toddler might imitate an adult waving a finger back and forth; or copy another infant who knows down a tower of blocks How Infants Remember -​ Young babies remember events for days and weeks -​ Infantile amnesia: inability to remember events from early in life  Bratovz 23 Understanding the World -​ Babies experience daily variation in quantity; toys, food, etc -​ Understanding numbers -​ After habituating to a certain number of objects in pictures, look longer at the new picture with a different number of objects -​ Test of quantity -​ 6 month olds distinguish between objects in a 1:2 ratio but not a 2:3 ratio -​ 10 months old discriminate at a 2:3 ratio but not a 4:5 ratio Exploring the Environment -​ Egocentric frame of reference -​ Thinking of objects in space in terms of their relationship to the child’s own body position -​ Objective frame of reference -​ Thinking of objects in space relative to the position of objects or persons other than oneself -​ Shift from egocentric to objective -​ By 12 months Language Development -​ 1st birthday, first words -​ 2nd birthday, few hundred words -​ Learning theorists -​ Imitation, reward -​ Modern theorists -​ Cognitive perspective, mastering many distinct skills  Bratovz 24 Fast Mapping Meaning to Words -​ Naming Explosion: 18 months -​ Period of language learning when children rapidly acquire new words -​ Fast mapping: meanings into words using rules/strategies -​ Learning Object Names -​ Join attention -​ Parents encourage word learning by carefully watching what interests their children, and label it for them Naming Errors -​ Underextension: word is defined narrowly -​ Using “car” to refer only to the family car -​ Overextension: word is defined too broadly Styles of Learning Langauge -​ Words that name objects, persons, or actions vs social phrases -​ Referential style -​ Intellectual tool -​ Expressive style -​ Social tool -​ Social phrases: go away, what is that and I want it